FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE  LIBRARY 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Class .^:...^r...i...-..<^  Book.ld.6a..7-^r-  Accession..._;.v....._.w  J& 
Given   bf. LslAt^ Z.L...L L L.tl.a.£l.M.&..£  7^5 


f'f£P/ 


Paint  and 

Varnish  Facts  and 

Formulae 


BY 

J.  N.  HOFF 


A  Hand  Book  for  the  Maker, 

Dealer  and  User  of  Paints 

and  Varnishes 


Published  by 

Central   Publishing   Company 
Newark,  New  Jersey 


New  York 
D.  Van  Nostrand  and  Company 

23  Murray  and  27  Warren  Streets 
1905 


Copyright  1904 

BY 

LEMUEL  B.  OSBORNE. 


THE  GETTY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


INDEX. 

A 

Acid  Acetic   6-61 

"     Sulphurous 84 

Adulterations 26-31-35-50 

Alcohol,  Grain 60 

"       Wood 61 

Alkalies,  Action  of 85 

' '       to  remove  paint 152 

Aluminum  Bronze 79 

Leaf 112 

Amyl  Acetate 61 

Ammonia 151 

Aniline  Colors 39-142-162 

Anti-f ouling   Paints 34 

Asphaltum 66-146 

B 

Banana  Liquid 102 

Barium  Chromate 32 

Bathtub  Enamel 116 

Bathtubs,  to  Enamel 117 

Benzines    59 

Berlin  Blue 36 

Black  Boards,  Coating  for 141 

Blacks 27-28 

"     Charcoal  or  Soot 27-28 

"     Ivory  or  Bone 27-28 

Black   Enamel 116 

Blistering 89 

Blooming 87 

Blue,  Celestial 37 

"     Chinese 36 

"     Cobalt 37 


-3  G  G3£ 


Blue,  Indigo  37 

' '     Prussian  36 

' '     Ultramarine 35 

Boiled  Oil 50 

"  Artificial    171 

Bottle  Greens 35 

British  Gum 80 

Bronze  Greens  35 

Bronzing  Liquids 102-103 

Bronzes    79 

"       How  Made 79 

' '       Imported 79 

Brushes,  Paint 155-156 

C 

Cadmium  Yellow 32 

Calcium  Carbonate   21 

Oxide 21 

Sulphate    20 

Calcutta  Linseed  Oil 52 

Camphor   Oil 175 

Carbon 27 

Carmine   39-95 

Caseine 77-105 

Cements 105-106 

Paints   77 

' '        Priming 94 

Castor  Oil 131 

Ceilings  99 

' '       to  take  spots  from 154 

Celestial  Blue 37 

Cements,  Pastes  and  Putties 103  to  106 

for  Steam  Pipes 103 

' '       for  Metal  and  Porcelain 104 

for  Metal  Letters  on  Glass 104 

' '       Quick  Drying  for  Iron 104 

Stone  and  Glass 104 

Caseine  105 

to  Unite  Glass  and  Metal 105 


Cements,  for  Glass  and  Minerals 105 

"       Paper 106 

' '       Caseine  for  General  Use 106 

for  Steam  Pipes 106 

Chalking    11-90 

China  Clay 19 

China  Wood  Oil 52 

Chinese  Blue  36 

Chemical  Colors 31 

Chrome   Greens 33 

Chrome  Ochre 34 

Chrome   Yellows 31 

Coach   Colors 44 

Coach   Varnish 69 

Coal  Tar  Naptha 60 

Coal  Tar  Pitch 66 

Cobalt  Blue   37 

Cochineal    39 

Cold  Water  Paints 77 

Collodion  Varnishes 170 

Colophony    55 

Colors,    Complimentary 96 

"       in  Oil,  Japan  and  Water 41 

in  Water 45 

"       Used  in  Water  Paints 95 

' '       in  Decorations 97 

"       in  Oil,  Cheap 44 

Positive  96 

"       Predominating 96 

' '       Primary    96 

Relation  to  Walls 97 

Copperas   Reds 26 

Cotton  Seed  Oil 50 

Covering  Power  of  Paints,  etc 46 

Crawling  of  Paint 89 

Cremnitz  White 22 

Crimson   Lakes 39 

Crinkling,  Peeling  and  Alligorating 90 


D 

Damar  Varnish 67 

Varnish,  to  Clear 106 

Dead  Finish  Varnishes 170-171 

Decorative  Effect  of  Paint 82 

Decorative    Enamels 113-117 

Decorations,  Hints  for  Interior 98-99-100-101 

Destruction  of  Wood  Metal  and  Stone 82-83 

Diastase 60 

Dotter    49 

Drawing  or  Pulling 87 

Dryers,  Japan 72 

"       Lead    71-116 

"       Liquid 71 

' '       Manganese   71 

to  Test 72-73 

Drying  Oil,  Action  of 50-82 

Dulling  or  Flatting 88 

Dutch   Pink 33 

E 

Earth  Colors,  Adulteration  of 25-26 

Emerald  Green,  True 34 

Emerald  Oxide  of  Chromium 34 

Enamels,  to  Prepare 113-117 

Good  Grades 114 

"       Weather  Proof 114 

"       Marine    114 

Porcelain  White 115 

Eosine    38 

F 

Filler,  for  Cracks  and  Crevices 106 

Liquid 122 

Paste    121-122 

"       and  Stain  Combined 124 

Fish  Oil 50 

Flake  White 22 


Flat  White  Primer 116 

Flax  Plant  48 

"     Seed    48 

Floors,  to  Treat 117-121 

Hardwood    118 

Painted 118 

Varnished    118 

Shellaced    119 

Waxed 119 

to  Stain 119 

to  Oil 120-121 

Floor  Oils 121 

"     Paints  149 

"     Waxes 134 

Formulae    102 

Fossil  Gums 63 

Frankfort  Black   28 

Furnishings    96 

Furniture  Polishes 148 

Varnishes   69 

Fusel  Oil 61 

G 

Gamboge    90 

Gasolines 59 

Gelatine    78 

Gilding 110-111 

Gilding  on  Glass 109 

"       on  Iron  and  Metal 112 

Glass  to  Etch 109 

' '     Frosting  on   109 

"     to  Gild  on 109 

Glass  Signs,  to  Back 113 

Gloss,  Loss  of 78 

Glues 78 

Bone  78 

Hide  78 

Liquid    108 

Waterproof 108 


Gold  Leaf,  Ordinary Ill 

"       "     Artificial    Ill 

Gold  Size 113 

Grain  Alcohol 60 

Graining    125 

Pigments  Used 125 

Tools  Required 126-127 

Glazing  Colors 128-129 

Graphite    29 

' '       Lubricant    ]  33 

Greens  33 

Bottle 35 

Bronze 35 

Chrome    33 

Emerald 34 

Green  Oxide  of  Chromium 33 

* '     Emerald  Oxide  of  Chromium 34 

"     Ultra  Marine 35 

Gum  Resins 64-65-66-67 

Zanzibar,  Angola,  Sierra  Leone,  Benguela,  Kauri 
Manilla,  Demars,  Shellac,  Resin,  Aspffaltum,  Mastic 
Sandarac. 

Gums,  True 79-80 

Arabic,  Dextrine,  British. 

Gum  Varnish,  Cost  of 70 

Gypsum   20 

to  Harden 20 

use   of 20 

H 

Hard  Oil  Finish 69 

Hints  for  Interior  Decorations 96 

Hydraulic  Cements 22 

I 

Indigo    37 

Influence  of  Atmospheric  Conditions 82-84 

Ink  Stains,  to  Remove 155 


Iron,  to  Preserve 155 

Iron  Rust,  to  Remove 155 

Isinglass    78 

J 

Japan  Dryer 72 

Japan  Gold  Size 113 

K 

Kauri  Gum . 178 

Kalsomines    77 

Kalsomining   177 

Kerosene    59 

L 

Lacquer,  Bronze  and  Metal 134 

Lakes    38-39 

Yellow   38 

Red 39 

Purple   39 

Scarlet 39 

Lapis  Lazuli 35 

Lamp    Black 27-28 

Lead  71 

' '     Antimoniate   32 

' '     Carbonate 5 

Lead  and  Oil  Paint 74    v 

Lead,  Sugar  of,  Dryers 116 

Lime 21 

Linoleic  Acid   94 

Linoleum,  Treatment  of 133 

Linseed    Oil 48 

Process  of  Manufacture 48 

Linseed  Oil,  Old  Process 49 

' '       New  Process 49 

Cold  and  Hot  Pressed 49 

Oxidation  of 50-71 

Adulterations  50 

Tests 50 


Liquid  Slateing 122-123-124 

Liquid  Wood  Fillers 122-123-124 

Lubricants    60-129-131 

' '         Wagon  Grease 132 

Patent  Wagon  Grease 132 

Graphite    133 

Lubricating  Oils 129 

' '  Animal,  Vegetable  and  Mineral ....  129-130 

Viscosity 130 

Congealing  and  Flash  Points 130 

Heavy  130 

Cylinder  130 

"  Standard  Machinery 130 

"  Light  Machinery 130 

High  Grade  131 

Motor 131 

Spindle    131 

Extra  Cylinder 131 

High  Grade  Cylinder 131 

Castor  Oil 131 

"       "       Substitute 132 

Lard  Oil,  Substitute 132 

M 

Machine  Paints 146 

Malt  60 

Manganese    71 

Marble,  to  Polish 148 

"       to  Remove  Stains  from 154 

Marine  Paints   34 

' '       Enamels    114 

Mars  Yellow 32 

Metallic  Brown 23 

Metallic  Paints 144 

"     Cheap 144 

"     Red 145 

"     High  Grade 145 

Mineral  Black   28 

Mineral  Oil 17-52-58-129 


Mineral  Pigments 23-41 

Mortar 21 

N 

Naples  Yellow   32 

Naptha 59 

Nitro-benzole    39 

0 

Ochres    23-24-25-32 

; '       Artificial  Coloring 25 

Artificial    32 

Cheap    24 

English - 24 

'       French    24 

'       Golden    25 

Gold  and  Russet  Shades 32 

: '       Roschelle 24 

Oil,  Boiled   50 

Camphor 175 

Castor 130 

China  Wood' 52 

Colza 130 

Cotton  Seed 17-130 

Fish 50 

Headlight   132 

Lard 129 

Lemon 176 

Linseed    17-48 

Lubricating   60-129-132 

Mineral  17-52-58-129 

Neatsfoot    129 

Olive   130 

Palm  130 

Poppy  Seed 53 

Rosin 50-56-57 

Signal   132 

Solar  60 

Sperm  129 


Oil,  Walnut  53 

"   Varnish 70 

' '   Varnishes  63 

Oils,  Other  Drying 53 

Oils  and  Solvents 48 

Oleates  and  Resinates 71 

Orange  Mineral  37 

Organic  Pigments  41 

Oxides  of  Cobalt 37 

Oxides  of  Iron 23 

Oxides  of  Zinc 12 

Properties  of 13 

Adulterations  and  Tests 14 

P 

Paint  Brushes 155 

Care  of 157 

to  Clean 157 

Paint,  Anti-f ouling 34 

Asphaltum    146 

Cheap  White 140-141 

Fireproof 141-142 

Flat  Interior   93 

Flexible  140 

Floor    149 

for  Coating  Rough  Walls 176 

Lead  and  Oil 74 

Marine 34 

Paraffine    144 

Ready  Mixed   137 

Silicate  of  Soda 176 

to  Clean 154 

Transparent  for  Glass 142 

Water  Glass 176 

Paint  Oil  Formulae 173 

"       Oils   171 

from  Rosin  Oil 172 

from   Resinates    172 

from  Oxidized  Linseed  Oil 173 


Paint  Troubles 89 

Crawling  89 

Running    89 

Drawing  and  Pulling 89 

Loss  of  Gloss  89 

Crinkling  89 

Saging  89 

Blistering    89 

Cracking,  Peeling  and  Alligatoring 90 

Chalking   90 

Action  of  Sun  on 91 

Painting  and  Decorating 92 

"      "  Exterior    92 

Interior    93 

Plaster 94 

Wood  Work 92 

Zinc 144 

' '         and  Varnishing 82 

Paints,  Paste  for  Machinery 146 

Paraffine  Wax   * 81 

Paris  Green 34 

Paris  White 16-179 

Patent  Gold Ill 

Paper,  to  Enamel  117 

Pastes,Ordinarv 106 

"       Wall  Paper 106 

Petroleum  Spirits   58 

Pigments,  Stability  of 41 

"       Tables  of  Permanency 42 

Pinholes  in  Varnish 87 

Pinoline   57 

Plaster   20 

Plaster  of  Paris 20 

Plumbago 29 

Polishing  Agents 147 

Paint,  Properties  of S2-84 

Life  of 84 

Covering  Power 46 

Action  of  External  Agents 84 


Polishes,  Excellent  French 143 

for  Iron  and  Steel 143 

Polishing  Wood  Work 94 

Poppy  Seed  Oil 53 

Positive  Colors 96 

Predominating   Colors 96 

Primary  Colors 96 

Priming    91-94 

Proportion  of  Oil  to  Pigments 85 

Prepared  Floor  Wax 134 

Putty  17 

' '     Joiners 106 

"     Floor  and  Crack  108-109 

Purple  Lakes  39 

a 

Quercitron  Bark   33 

Quaker  Greens 35 

R 

Ready  Mixed  Paints 74-134 

Prejudice  Against 74 

Composition  of 75 

Pigments    Used 75 

Cost   of 76 

Cheap    Grades 76 

Base 136 

Coloring  Matter  for 137 

All  Shades,  to  Make 137 

Base  White 137 

Inside  White  135 

Outside  White  135-136 

Solutions  for  75-76-135 

Facht  White 135 

Various  Colors 137-140 

Ready  Mixed  Paints 134 

Apple  Green 139 

Black    137 

Blues  Light  and  Dark 140 

Bronze  Green 139 


Brown,  Light  and  Dark 13S 

Buffs    139 

Colonial   139 

Cream    139 

Greens   137 

Green  Stone,  Medium 139 

Lavender 139 

Leads    138 

Lemon    137 

Maroon 140 

Olives  139 

Pea  Green 139 

Quaker  Drab 139 

Red  137 

Salmon 139 

Straws  139 

Stone  138 

Spruce  139 

Tans 139 

Vermillion 137 

Yellow   137 

Red  Enamel 116 

Red  Lakes 39 

Red  Lead 37-84 

Removers,  Paint  and  Varnish 151-153 

* '  Ammonia    151 

Alkalies 152 

"  Liquid  Removers 152 

Removing  Whitewash 97 

Rolls  of  Wallpaper,  Rule  to  Determine 98 

Rosin 50-55-67 

"       Light 56 

' '       Color,  Brands,  etc 56 

"       Oils   57 

"     Residues    57 

"     Refined  58 

Rubbed  Work 93 

Running  of  Paint 89 

Rule  for  Use  of  Mineral  and  Vegetable  Pigments 29 


s 

Sandarac G7 

Scarlet  Lakes  39 

Separating  of  Varnish 87 

Shellacs  65 

Crude  65 

Refined 65 

Bleached    66 

Shellac  Varnishes   166 

Shelling  87 

Short  Oil  Varnishes 69 

Siennas 23-25 

Raw  and  Burnt 24 

Italian    25 

Sign  Painting  Rule 112 

Signal  Oil  132 

Silica   18 

in  Paint 18 

in  Fillers 18 

Silicate  of  Alumina 19 

"       of  Lime 94 

' '       of  Magnesium  20 

"       of  Soda   18-94 

Paints 176 

Silver  Leaf 112 

Smalts   81 

Smoke  Gases 9-84 

Soap  Stone  20 

Solar  Oil 60 

Solutions 75-76-135 

Spirits  of  Wine 61 

Spots,  to  Remove  from  Ceilings 154 

Spotting  or  Chilling 87 

Stains,  Aniline 162 

"     Oil    163-164 

"     Spirit 160 

"     Shingle   165 

"     Red  Brown    163 

"     Solution  for 161 


Stains,  Yellow  Brown 163 

4 '     Various  Colors  to  Make 158-160 

"     Varnish  163-164 

11     Water   158 

11     Antique  Oak  158 

"     Cherry    159 

"     Ebony  159 

"     Grey    159 

' '     Mahogany lj?9 

"     Mahogany,  Light  and  Dark 158 

"     Maple 159 

"     Oak   • 15S 

"     Walnut 158 

Stains,  Water  and  Spirit 160 

"  Blue 16° 

"  Blue  Black 16° 

11  Brown 16° 

"     Brownish  Red 160 

"     Crimson 16° 

"     Dark  Grey  16° 

11     Greenish  16° 

"     Green 161 

' '     Greenish  Grey 161 

11     Yellowish  Grey  161 

"     Cherry  Red   161 

11     Orange    I61 

"     Red   161 

"     Rose  Color 161 

"     Straw  Color 161 

Solutions  161 

Gall  Nuts  161 

Brazil  Wood 161 

Fustie   161 

Persian  Berries 161 

Cochineal    161 

Indigo 161 

Tin    162 

Stains,  Varnish  and  Oil 165 

Antique  Oak    164 


Cherry    164 

Dark  Cherry    164 

Green   165 

Mahogany   165 

Oak    165 

Rosewood 165 

Walnut    164 

Stains,  to  Remove  from  Boards 154 

"       "       "         "       Marble    154 

Starch    80 

Sticklac     65 

Striae  87 

Substitutes 132 

Castor  Oil 132 

Lard  Oil 132 

Linseed  Oil 171 

"         Turpentine 174 

Sugar   60-61 

Sugar  of  Lead  Dryer 116 

Sun,  Action  of 91 

Sweating  86 

Sulphate  of  Cadnium    32 

Sulphide  of  Barium 15 

"         to  Detect 16 

of  Lead 15 

"         of  Mercury 38 

of  Zinc   14 

Sulphurous  Acid 84 

T 

Talc    20 

Tar 61 

Terra  Alba   20 

Testing  of  Paints 45 

Colors    45 

Varnishes   73 

Tung   Oil    52 

Turning  White  of  Varnish 88 


Turpentine,  Spirits  of 53-54-55 

' '         How  Obtained 54 

Tests  for  Purity 55 

Drying  Properties 54 

Turpentine  Substitutes 174 

Venice 58 

U 

Ultra  Marine  Blue 35-36 

Ultra  Marine  Green  35 

Umbers   23-25 

Burnt  and  Raw 25 

V 

Varnishes,  Brands  of 68 

Carriage   67 

Ceiling 69 

Cheap  Black 66 

Dead  Finish 170 

"         Gum,  Cost,  of 70 

"         Covering  Power  of 46 

Exterior   ,  .67 

Flat 171 

Furniture 69 

Varnish  Formulae,  Asphaltum 176 

Collodion    170 

Colorless 168  / 

Shellac  Grain 167 

"     Wood 167 

"     Cheap 167 

"     Water  167 

Varnishes,  Special 168 

Varnishes,  Spirit :  .  167 

Varnish  Gums   64 

Interior    67 

"       Oils    70 

Varnishes,  Raw  Materials 63 

Oil 63 

Spirit 63 


Varnish  and  Paint  Troubles 82 

Sweating  86 

Shelling 87 

Wrinkling 87 

Striae  87 

Pinholes 87 

Spotting  and  Chilling   87 

Drawing  and  Pulling 87 

Separating  and  Crawling 87 

Blowing  and  Blistering 87 

Blooming 87 

Turning  White    88 

Dulling  or  Flutting 88 

Varnish,  to  Test ,.73 

Varnish  Formulae,  Transparent  Brilliant 169 

Water  Proof 169 

Water  Proof  Paper 169 

Vaseline    60 

Venice  Turpentine 58 

Vermillion,  True  38 

Cheap    38 

Venetian  Red   21-26 

W 

Wagon  Grease  132 

Walls  98 

Wall  Paper,  Hanging  of 97-98 

Rolls  for  a  Boom 98 

Walls,  Repapering 97 

"     Treatment  of 97 

Walnut  Oil 53 

Water  Proof  Glues 108 

Water  Glass 18-176 

"     Size   113 

Wax  Finish  for  Wood 148 

Waxes,  Furniture  and  Floor 134 

M       Bees 80 

Ceresin 81 

Carnauba 81 


Paraffine  60-81 

Polishing 134 

White 80 

Whiskey 61 

Whiting   16-179 

White  Lead 5 

Processes  oi'  Manufacture  6 

Old  Dutch 6 

Quick  Process 6 

Pulp  Lead 7 

Mill  Ground  Lead 7 

Action  of  Linseed  Oil  on 9 

Action  of  Other  Agents 9-10 

Adulterations    10-11 

Whitewash 21-177 

97 

Wild  Mustard 49 

AYood  Alcohol 61 

Absolute 62 

"     Fillers  Liquid   122 

Quality  of 22 

Pigments  Used 122 

Paste 121 

Wood  Spirit 61 

Wood  Work,  Various  Colors,  Treatment  of  .98-99-100-101 

"     Ash   99 

"     Brown    99 

"     Cedar  99 

"     Chestnut    99 

"     Cream    99 

"     Fawn  Colored 100 

"     Ivoory  Enamel 100 

"     Light  Golden  Oak 100 

"     Mahogany    100 

"     Pale  Green 100 

"     Pearl  Grey 100 

"     Silver  Birch   100 

"     Yellow  Orange 100 


PAINT  AND  VARNISH 
FACTS  AND  FORMULAE. 

CHAPTER  I. 
WHITE  PAINTS  AND  PIGMENTS. 

White  Lead. 

HTHIS  is  the  most  important  of  all  paint  forming 
dry  material,  from  the  standpoint  of  general, 
indeed  universal  use,  it  answering  most  of  the 
requirements  demanded. 

Its  production  cost  and  selling  price  is  mod- 
erate, it  can  be  used  as  a  base  to  combine  with 
other  pigments,  has  great  opacity,  so-called  cover- 
ing power,  mixes  readily  with  linseed  oil  and  tur- 
pentine, aids  the  drying  properties  of  the  paint  of 
which  it  forms  a  part,  works  easily  under  the 
brush  when  properly  mixed,  and  has  reasonable 
durability.  The  last-mentioned  property  is  gov- 
erned by  the  quality  of  the  oil  used  and  the  condi- 
tions to  which  the  painted  surface  is  exposed. 
White  lead  or  basic  carbonate  of  lead  of  average 
quality  contains  approximately, 

Oxide  of  lead,  86.72 

Carbonic  acid, 11.28 

Water,    2.00 

100.00 
5 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

As  met  with  in  commerce,  it  is  a  heavy  pigment 
of  varying  degrees  of  whiteness,  depending  upon 
the  method  of  manufacture  and  the  care  exercised 
in  its  production. 

Sometimes  a  trace  of  Prussian  Blue  is  added  to 
increase  its  appearance  of  whiteness. 

The  processes  of  manufacture  in  practical 
operation  may  be  divided  into  the  slow  or  so-called 
Old  Dutch  Process,  with  its  modifications,  and  the 
various  quick  process  methods  whose  name  is  leg- 
ion, few  of  which,  however,  are  in  practical  use. 

The  Old  Dutch  Process  consists  in  casting  the 
metallic  lead,  free  from  impurities,  in  the  form  of 
buckles  or  thin  strips  of  spiral  formation ;  the  lead 
thus  formed  is  placed  in  earthern  ware  pots  so 
that  it  is  held  or  suspended  above  vinegar  or  ace- 
tic acid  which  covers  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
These  pots  are  arranged  in  rows  and  covered  with 
planks  and  a  layer  of  dung  or  spent  tan  bark.  Row 
upon  row  is  built  up  in  this  manner  to  form  what 
is  termed  a  stack.  The  fermentation  of  the  dung 
or  tan  bark  produces  sufficient  heat  to  volatalize 
the  acetic  acid,  the  fumes  of  which,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  converts  the  lead 
into  basic  acetate  of  lead,  which  in  its  turn  is  con- 
verted into  basic  lead  carbonate  by  the  carbonic 
acid  resulting  from  the  fermenting  manure  or  tan 
bark. 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

The  process  of  conversion  requires  about  three 
months.  The  resulting  product  is  removed,  sep- 
arated from  the  metallic  lead  which  may  still  re- 
main to  some  extent,  washed,  ground  and  dried,  if 
it  is  to  be  sold  in  that  form.  When  to  be  ground  in 
oil  at  the  place  of  manufacture,  the  drying  process 
is  usually  eliminated.  The  wet  or  pulp  lead  in 
this  case  being  passed,  after  screening,  into  a 
pulper.  Linseed  oil,  in  proper  quantity,  is  intro- 
duced and  the  mechanical  action  is  such,  that  the 
oil  displaces  the  water  contained  in  the  pulp  lead 
and  the  now  finished  product  is  run  into  kegs. 

This  is  pulp  lead  in  contradistinction  to  mill 
ground  lead  made  in  the  old  way  by  grinding  dry 
lead  with  linseed  oil  in  stone  mills  of  various  types. 

Mill  ground  lead  appears  to  have  some  favor- 
able points  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  pulp 
process,  but  the  latter  method  is  so  perfect  as  to 
produce  lead  practically  free  from  water  and  in 
such  condition  as  to  "  break  up "  in  oil  or  turpen- 
tine much  more  quickly  and  easily  than  will  the 
mill  ground  product.  Excess  of  moisture  is  the 
essential  point  to  guard  against. 

The  English  method  of  making  white  lead  is  to 
convert  the  metallic  lead  into  litharge,  which  is 
done  by  oxidizing  the  metal  in  a  furnace.  The  lith- 
arge in  a  finely  divided  state  is  moistened  with  lead 
acetate  solution,   placed  in  closed  troughs   into 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  driven,  the  litharge  be- 
ing continually  agitated  by  suitable  machinery; 
white  lead  is  the  resulting  product.  This  lead  cov- 
ers well,  and  is  considered  good.  Of  the  other 
quick  process  methods,  the  one  most  largely  used 
in  this  country,  subjects  the  metallic  lead  in  a  finely 
divided  state  to  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
acetic  acid,  in  large  revolving  cylinders. 

Another  method  is  to  dissolve  the  lead  in  acetic 
acid,  forming  a  solution  of  basic  acetate  of  lead 
and  precipitating  this  lead  in  the  form  of  white 
lead  by  introducing  carbonic  acid  gas  into  the  solu- 
tion. 

The  physical  properties  of  white  lead  produced 
by  the  various  processes  differs  in  opacity,  fine- 
ness, density,  and  color. 

Quick  process  leads  have,  as  a  rule,  a  crystal- 
line formation,  giving  a  tendency  to  transparency, 
while  slow  process  lead  (Dutch  Process),  on  ac- 
count of  the  amorphous  condition  of  the  substance, 
is  denser,  more  opaque,  and  masks  or  covers  bet- 
ter. This  opacity  is  heightened  by  the  pigment  be- 
ing coarser  in  grain  than  the  precipitated  leads. 

Slow  process  leads  are  apt  to  be  more  or  less 
off  color  and  to  contain  impurities  unless  very 
carefully  prepared.  The  quick  process  leads,  in 
which  the  methods  are  under  perfect  control,  pro- 
duce a  product,  when  complete,  excelling  in  white- 

8 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ness  and  fineness  of  texture.  This  latter  property, 
the  fineness  of  the  particles,  makes  the  lead  bulkier 
and  hence  it  requires  more  oil  in  producing  a 
workable  paint  and  is  another  reason  why  it  seems 
to  cover  poorly,  The  proportion  of  lead  being  less 
and  oil  greater. 

Of  all  dry  materials  used  as  pigments,  white 
lead  has  probably  the  most  action  on  linseed  oil, 
the  hydroxide  of  lead  combining  with  a  portion 
of  the  oil,  to  f  orm  lead  soap,  which  helps  to  hold  the 
carbonate  of  lead  in  suspension  and  accounts  for 
the  smooth  working  qualities  and  the  tough  elastic 
coat  it  produces.  Too  much  action  between  the 
particles  of  lead  and  oil  produces  the  chalking 
tendency  of  white  lead.  This  is  sure  to  occur 
eventually,  because  the  natural  tendency  of  the 
lead  is  to  aid  the  oxygen  in  the  air  to  oxidize  the 
oil  until  the  binding  properties  are  entirely  de- 
stroyed. When  white  lead  is  used,  however,  the 
surface  left  is  in  better  condition  for  repainting 
than  that  left  in  the  use  of  most  other  pigments. 

White  lead  is  sensitive  to  the  action  of  alkalies, 
acids,  and  many  substances  containing  sulphur, 
such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  occurs  in 
coal  gases.  The  sulphur  in  coal  gases  causes  white 
lead  to  turn  black,  due  to  the  formation  of  lead  sul- 
phide. The  drip  of  rain  water  from  trees  or  other 
foliage  also  tends  to  make  lead  blacken  in  spots 

9 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

and  mildew,  particularly  where  the  shade  is  dense 
and  little  sunlight  penetrates.  Tinting  colors  con- 
taining sulphides,  or  linseed  oil  which  is  impure,  or 
which  has  been  bleached  and  clarified  with  cer- 
tain chemical  agents  also  exercises  a  bad  effect  on 
white  lead,  under  certain  conditions.  What  ap- 
pears to  be  a  dirty  blackened  condition  of  the  paint 
may  also  be  due  to  dust  particles  adhering  to  the 
surface  of  the  paint.  In  this  case,  washing  with  a 
very  weak  solution  of  sal  soda  will  renovate  the 
surface,  the  paint  underneath  being  found  to  be  in 
good  condition.  In  a  small  way,  the  blackening  can 
be  removed  by  the  use  of  a  strong  solution  of  Hy- 
drogen Peroxide  with  5  per  cent,  of  ammonia 
water  added,  applied  with  a  sponge.  This  chemi- 
cal converts  the  blackened  lead  into  lead  sulphate 
which  is  white.  Sunlight  also  tends  to  bleach 
darkened  white  lead  paint. 

White  lead  is  adulterated  with  lead  sulphate,  (a 
poorly  covering  white,  which  mixes  badly  with  oil), 
chalk,  clay,  barytes,  gypsum  and  silex. 

These  adulterations,  in  most  cases,  being  neu- 
tral pigments,  rather  increase  the  durability  of  the 
paint.  The  objection  to  these  substances  is  that 
they  detract  from  the  covering  power  of  the  paint, 
give  it  a  tendency  to  crack,  and  are  very  much 
cheaper  than  the  white  lead  you  are  paying  for. 

Indeed,  in  the  writer's  experience,  a  case  was 

10 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

noted  where  pure  lead  and  oil  were  used  and  mil- 
dew and  blackening  occurred,  whereas,  on  part  of 
the  same  work,  the  same  lead  and  oil,  with  50  per 
cent,  paris  white  added,  was  applied  at  the  same 
time  the  pure  lead  was  used.  The  latter  work 
showed  a  white,  glistening  and  perfect  surface 
when  the  pure  lead  paint  was  in  a  deplorable  con- 
dition. The  only  favoring  condition  given  the 
adulterated  paint,  was  its  exposure  to  the  direct 
sunlight,  while  the  other  painted  work  was  shaded 
by  surrounding  trees. 

It  is  likely  that  the  neutralizing  action  of  these 
cheap  pigments  do  reduce  the  chemical  action  of 
the  white  lead  on  the  oil,  preventing  the  binder  of 
the  pigment  from  perishing  so  soon  as  it  would 
without  them,  but  producing  brittleness  and  lack 
of  elasticity. 

Tests.— Subject  the  suspected  sample  of  lead  to 
the  blow  pipe  flame  on  charcoal.  Pure  white  lead 
is  readily  reconverted  into  metallic  lead  without 
residue.  Any  residue  present  in  the  form  of  white 
powder  is  likely  to  be  sulphate  of  lead  or  barytes. 
Pure  white  lead  is  perfectly  soluble  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  and  the  addition  of  caustic  potash  solution 
should  not  form  a  precipitate.  A  residue  in  the 
nitric  acid  solution  indicates  gypsum,  barytes,  or 
lead  suphate. 


11 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Oxide  of  Zinc. 

White  zinc  as  a  pigment  is  next  in  importance 
to  white  lead.  It  is  made  by  strongly  heating  me- 
tallic zinc  in  fireclay  retorts  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace.  The  heat  vaporizes  the  metal,  which  va- 
por is  brought  into  contact  with  air  heated  to  300 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  Oxidation  results.  The  oxide 
is  a  very  loose  flocculent  material  and  is  carried 
by  the  hot  air  into  condensing  chambers  where  it  is 
deposited  ready  for  use. 

Zinc  white  is  often  prepared  directly  from  its 
ores.  The  roasted  ores  are  pulverized  and  heated 
in  a  furnace  on  a  bed  of  coal,  and  when  fully  ig- 
nited are  submitted  to  a  current  of  air  from  be- 
neath the  grate.  The  vapors  formed  are  kept 
strongly  heated  along  with  a  current  of  air  and  led 
into  condensing  chambers.  Zinc  made  direct  from 
the  ores  varies  in  whiteness,  but  is,  for  the  most 
part,  a  good  commercial  product,  the  off  grades 
produced  being  sold  for  other  purposes  where  col- 
or is  not  an  object. 

It  is  also  produced  by  the  action  of  lime  water 
on  a  solution  of  zinc  chloride.  Zinc  white  takes 
much  more  oil  than  white  lead  to  make  a  suitable 
paint  and,  hence,  will  cover  more  surface,  but  is 
more  transparent  and,  therefore,  requires  more 
coats  to  produce  the  same  dense  covering  given  by 
white  lead.     It  is  practically  a  neutral  pigment  in 

12 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

the  sense  that  there  is  little  chemical  action  between 
it  and  linseed  oil,  and  zinc  has  the  great  advantage 
of  not  being  darkened  or  discolored  by  sulphur 
gases  or  sulphides  as  is  lead,  and  is  less  injurious 
to  workmen,  being  non-poisonous.  It  dries  with 
linseed  oil  to  a  hard  glossy  surface,  and  is  less  like- 
ly to  blister  when  exposed  to  the  sun  and  with- 
stands changes  of  temperature  better.  In  hot  cli- 
mates it  is  very  suitable  to  use.  Its  chief  fault  is  a 
tendency  after  a  time  to  crack  under  certain  condi- 
tions when  used  alone,  and  its  poor  covering  (mask- 
ing) qualities.  When  zinc  is  used,  instead  of  lead, 
more  dryer  is  needed  as  it  does  not  assist  the  oil  in 
this  function. 

Oxide  of  zinc  has  the  property  of  combining 
with  the  gum  resins,  and  this  property  is  taken  ad- 
vantage of  in  the  manufacture  of  enamels  in  which, 
for  this  reason,  and  because  of  its  whiteness  and 
the  sharper,  clearer  tints  it  gives  with  colored  pig- 
ments, makes  it  particularly  useful. 

A  combination  of  zinc  and  lead  in  the  propor- 
tion of  75  per  cent,  lead  to  25  per  cent,  zinc,  gives 
a  paint  of  great  durability,  good  body  and  covering 
power,  and  less  likely  to  be  acted  upon  by  external 
influences  than  pure  white  lead. 

Such  has  been  the  experience  of  many  who  have 
carefully  tested  this  combination.  In  passing,  it 
might  be  stated  that  zinc  oxides  produced  by  the 
French  process  direct  from  pure  metallic  zinc  or 

13 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

spelter,  particularly  the  imported  article,  is  su- 
perior in  whiteness.  The  terms  green  seal  and  red 
seal  French  zinc  were  originally  used  to  designate 
first  and  second  grade  oxides,  but  at  the  present 
time  the  designation  means  little  or  nothing  and  in 
purchasing  oxide  of  zinc,  one  must  depend  upon 
the  reputation  of  the  grinder  or  distributor  as  a 
guarantee  of  the  quality  represented. 

The  advantages  and  drawbacks  of  both  white 
lead  and  zinc  oxide  have  been  plainly  stated.  It  is 
simply  a  matter  of  judgment  as  to  using  the  one 
or  the  other  or  a  combination  of  the  two  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  paint  to  be  used. 

Tests.— The  purity  of  zinc  oxide  is  easily  de- 
termined. If  pure,  it  will  dissolve  completely  with- 
out effervescence  in  boiling  dilute  nitric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid.  If  it  does  not  completely  dissolve, 
barytes  is  likely  present.  If  it  effervesces  while 
dissolving,  it  contains  whiteing,  white  lead,  or  zinc 
carbonate,  which  is  an  inferior  pigment. 

If,  on  heating  in  a  tube,  the  sample  turns  yellow 
and  gives  off  vapor,  white  lead  is  present,  as  pure 
oxide  of  zinc  undergoes  no  change  when  heated. 

SULPHIDE  OF  ZINC,  is  a  white  pigment  of  consid- 
erable body,  sometimes  used  as  a  paint.  On  ac- 
count of  the  sulphur  it  contains,  it  may  exert  a  det- 
rimental effect  when  mixed  with  some  pigments. 

Lithophone,  which  is  sulphide  of  zinc  in  modi- 

14 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

fied  form,  has  replaced  the  pure  sulphide  as  a  paint 
pigment.  It  is  composed  of  sulphate  of  barium, 
(barytes),  containing  about  30  per  cent,  of  zinc  sul- 
phide. This  is  frequently  used  in  place  of  zinc 
oxide  and,  for  some  purposes,  is  equally  as  good, 
having  the  same  general  properties  and  being 
cheaper. 

SULPHATE  OF  LEAD  is  a  neutral  lead  pigment  of 
crystalline  structure  and  poor  covering  power.  It 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  or  substituted  for  white 
lead.  It  is  found  as  a  by-product  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  aluminum  acetate  from  alum  and  sugar  of 
lead,  or  in  obtaining  acetic  acid  by  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  upon  lead  acetate.  It  is  also  found  in 
an  impure  state  as  a  deposit  in  the  lead  chambers 
of  sulphuric  acid  works.  Lead  sulphate  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  water  and  in  dilute  acids  and  is 
non-poisonous.  The  fact  that  it  covers  poorly,  has 
a  tendency  to  crack  or  "alligator,"  and  does  not 
mix  well  with  oil,  work  against  its  general  use  as  a 
paint  pigment. 

SULPHATE  OF  BARIUM. -Barytes  is  a  natural 
mineral  prepared  for  use  by  simply  drying  and 
grinding.  Enormous  quantities  are  used  as  an 
adulterant,  in  almost  all  pigments.  It  is  crystalline 
and  does  not  deaden  the  color  with  which  it  may  be 
combined.  In  grinding,  it  takes  very  little  oil,  and 
is  the  universal  cheapener.     Its  use  is  to  be  de- 

15 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

plored  when  introduced  into  pigments  which,  in 
themselves,  are  marked  pure. 

The  reader  should  understand  that  many  col- 
ored pigments  are  of  such  great  strength  and  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  use  of  some  reducer,  as  bary- 
tes  is  necessary  to  improve  their  mixing  and  paint 
forming  qualities. 

Artificial  barium  sulphate  is  also  produced  and 
differs  only  in  being  finer,  whiter  and  free  from  ad- 
mixture with  other  substances,  in  other  words, 
a  chemically  pure  product.  While  the  covering 
power  of  barytes  is  poor,  it  is  not  altered  by  atmos- 
pheric conditions  and  is  without  action  on  other 
pigments.  It  does  not  work  well  in  oil  alone,  but 
improves  much  when  used  in  conjunction  with 
other  pigments,  particularly  white  lead.  A  paint 
composed  of  two  parts  white  lead  and  one  part 
barytes  is  little  affected  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  is,  therefore,  much  less  likely  to  blacken  or 
change  color,  than  white  lead  alone. 

Barytes  is  practically  insoluble  in  hydrochloric 
or  nitric  acid,  which  easily  distinguishes  it  from 
white  lead  or  oxide  of  zinc. 

WHITING  AND  PARIS  WHITE,  which  is  powdered 
chalk  (carbonate  of  lime)  is  found  in  nature.  It  is 
ground,  washed  and  floated  through  vats  with  ex- 
cess of  water,  and  allowed  to  settle.  The  best 
grades  being  those  taken  from  the  furthest  vats. 

16 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

The  best  quality  of  putty  is  made  from  whiting 
and  pure  linseed  oil.  Whiting  requires  about  23 
per  cent,  of  oil  to  form  putty.  This  article  is 
adulterated  with  barytes  and  marble  dust,  which 
take  much  less  oil  to  form  a  mass  of  equal  consist- 
ency and  as  oil  is  the  expensive  ingredient  in  putty, 
this  saving  is  quite  an  object.  In  place  of  linseed 
oil,  cottonseed  oil,  paraffine  and  neutral  oils  are 
used.  The  substitution  of  mineral  oils  is  what 
causes  the  putty  to  strike  through  the  paint  and 
show  yellow ;  why  not  insist  on  having  pure  linseed 
oil  putty  and  pay  the  price.  Let  us  see  what  is  the 
cost  of  pure  putty : 

80  lbs.  whiting,  at  3-4c.  lb $.60 

20  lbs.  raw  oil,  at  6c.  lb 1.20 

Package 25 

Labor,  etc.  l-2c.  lb 50 

$2.55 

When  you  consider  that  most  putty  is  retailed 
at  $1.75  to  $2.00  per  cwt.,  it  is  readily  understood 
why  it  can  not  be  pure. 

Whiting  or  Paris  white  is  used  as  an  adulterant 
in  colored  pigments,  usually  in  connection  with 
barytes.  It  counteracts  the  open  texture  and 
heaviness  of  the  latter  substance,  and,  being  more 
opaque,  increases  the  covering  power.    When  used 

17 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

in  colors,  it  dulls  or  destroys  the  coloring  power  of 
the  pigment  in  which  quality  barytes  is  superior. 

Whiting  is  the  base  of  kalsomines  and  most 
fresco  or  water  colors,  where  it  finds  extended  use. 

SILICA,  or  silicon  dioxide,  is  a  widely  distributed 
mineral.  It  occurs  in  rocky  masses  of  crystalline 
formation,  clear,  or  partly  opaque,  and  white  in 
color  when  pure.  It  is  prepared  for  use  by  grind- 
ing and  removing  the  moisture  by  any  of  the  usual 
processes. 

In  combination  with  white  lead,  this  substance 
has  been  used  for  some  considerable  time  as  a  paint 
base  and  some  extravagant  claims  have  been  made 
for  it.  It  resembles  barytes  in  its  working  quali- 
ties, except  that  it  is  bulkier  and  requires  more  oil. 
Used  as  a  paint,  it  dries  extremely  hard,  is  a  neu- 
tral pigment,  but  covers  poorly.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  paste  and  liquid  wood  fillers,  in  which  use 
its  hard  drying  properties  and  transparency  ren- 
der it  of  considerable  value. 

Silica  is  of  particular  interest  from  the  fact  that 
water  glass  or  silicate  of  soda  (soluble  glass)  is 
prepared  from  it.  This  substance  finds  extended 
use  in  dyeing,  color  printing,  in  various  cements, 
and  in  painting. 

Water  glass  comes  into  commerce  in  the  form  of 
a  thickly  fluid  transparent  mass  resembling  sugar 
syrup  in  appearance.    It  is  made  by  fuseing,  in  a 

18 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

crucible,  15  parts  of  quartz  sand  (silica),  10  parts 
of  potassium  carbonate  and  1  part  of  powdered 
charcoal.  When  cold,  the  fused  mass  is  pulverized 
and  exposed  to  the  air.  The  powder  is  washed 
thoroughly  with  cold  water,  and  then  boiled  with  5 
parts  of  water  until  dissolved.  The  solution  is 
filtered  and  evaporated  to  the  proper  consistency; 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  it  dries  to  a  transparent 
glass.  Other  methods  of  manufacture  are  in 
vogue,  in  a  general  way  resembling  the  one  de- 
scribed. It  can  be  purchased  very  cheaply.  Under 
formulae,  in  Chapter  X.  various  water  glass  prepa- 
rations are  described. 

CHINA  CLAY,  or  silicate  of  alumina  forms  part 
of  the  composition  of  several  minerals,  notably 
feldspar,  granite,  porphyry  and  similar  rocks.  By 
the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  aided  by 
water,  these  formations  disintegrate  and  become 
goft  pliable  masses  of  earthy  matter. 

In  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  England,  occur 
large  deposits  of  disintegrated  white  granite,  fur- 
nishing large  supplies  of  fine  white  china  clay. 
The  crude  material  is  properly  disintegrated  and 
washed  to  separate  the  mica  and  quartz  present 
and  the  milk-like  liquid  is  stored  in  tanks.  The 
clay  settles  out  and  is  first  dried  in  the  air,  and 
then  in  ovens.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  paints, 
and  particularly  in  wood  fillers.    Being  very  bulky, 

19 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

it  holds  up  well  in  solution,  and  has  a  smooth  unc- 
tuous working  quality.  Its  principal  use  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain. 

TALC,  or  silicate  of  magnesium,  is  a  soft,  white 
mineral,  and  soap  stone  is  but  another  form  con- 
taining aluminum.  It  is  used,  occasionally  in 
paints,  dry  and  mixed,  as  an  adulterant,  and  in 
wood  fillers.  The  soft,  soapy  nature  of  this  sub- 
stance is  about  the  only  advantage  it  offers. 

GYPSUM,  or  terra  alba  is  calcium  sulphate  con- 
taining moisture.  It  is  found  in  a  commonly  oc- 
curing  class  of  minerals,  both  crystalline  and 
fibrous,  and  in  the  form  of  gypsum  earth  or  land 
plaster. 

Gypsum,  from  which  all  the  water  has  been  re- 
moved by  burning,  is  termed  burnt  gypsum,  or 
plaster  of  paris.  It  has  the  property  of  again 
combining  with  water  to  form  a  solid  mass,  which 
property  is  taken  advantage  of  in  many  ways. 

Unburnt  gypsum,  when  treated  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  potassium  sulphate,  or  carbonate,  will 
harden  even  more  quickly  than  burnt  gypsum  with 
pure  water.  Thus,  plaster,  which  has  not  hard- 
ened properly,  can  be  made  to  do  so  by  coating  it 
with  a  solution  of  the  potash  salts  mentioned,  which 
will  also  assist  in  rendering  mild  or  less  alkaline 
any  caustic  lime  which  may  be  used  with  the  plas- 
ter.    Gypsum  is  used  for  building  and  decorative 

20 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

purposes,  in  stucco  work  and  in  some  kalsomines 
and  fresco  paints. 

Gypsum  can  be  hardened  in  several  ways. 
Burnt  gypsum  may  be  mixed  with  lime  water  or  a 
solution  of  glue  in  water.  A  very  good  method  is 
to  mix  the  gypsum  with  a  solution  of  alum  water 
containing  3  to  4  ounces  of  alum  to  the  pint  of 
water  used.  This  mixture  hardens  completely  in 
a  few  minutes,  and  is  known  as  marble  cement. 
Borax  water,  containing  2  ounces  of  borax  to  the 
pint,  will  act  in  the  same  manner. 

LIME,  OR  CALCIUM  OXIDE  is  made  by  burning 
lime  stone  (calcium  carbonate)  which  is  a  mineral 
of  common  occurence.  It  is  found  in  the  bones  of 
all  animals,  shells  and  as  marble,  coral,  chalk,  and 
in  other  more  or  less  familiar  forms.  Its  uses  are 
varied  and  well-known  in  the  form  of  burnt  lime, 
as  calcium  carbonate,  and  as  chalk  or  whiting, 
which  is  an  earthy  form  of  the  carbonate  usually 
containing  clay. 

Burnt  lime  moistened  with  water,  slacks  with 
great  violence.  When  slacked,  one  part  of  water 
to  three  parts  of  lime,  it  forms  a  soft  white  powder, 
hydrated  calcium  oxide.  If  unsufficient  water  is 
used  the  powder  will  be  gritty  and  harsh.  After 
slacking,  a  thin  cream  can  be  made  by  the  addition 
of  more  water.  Mortar  is  a  mixture  of  sand  with 
a  thin  cream  of  lime.  The  use  of  lime  as  white- 
wash is  well  known. 

21 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Hydraulic  cement  is  composed  of  burnt  lime, 
containing  a  large  percentage  of  clay  or  silica,  lime 
having  the  property  of  hardening  under  water  in 
the  presence  of  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  silica  in 
its  composition.  Lime  water  is  used  in  some  forms 
of  fresco  painting  on  plaster.  Slacked  lime  has 
good  covering  qualities  and  this  property  and  its 
cheapness  has  impelled  many  experiments  and  at- 
tempts to  use  lime  as  a  pigment  in  oil  paints  com- 
bined with  lead,  zinc  and  other  whites.  Its  use  in 
appreciable  quantity,  because  of  its  alkalinity,  de- 
stroys the  binding  quality  of  the  oil,  and  leaves  the 
paint  to  perish. 

FLAKE  WHITE  AND  CHEMNITZ  WHITE  are  care- 
fully prepared  forms  of  white  lead,  wherein  the 
pigment  is  of  superior  whiteness  and  in  a  very 
finely  divided  state  by  rewashing  and  floating, 
whereby  the  bulkiest  and  finest  portions  are  separ- 
ated. It  is  used  mainly  by  artists  and  is  of  no 
practical  interest  tc  the  painter  save  in  rare  cases. 
It  sometimes  replaces  white  zinc  in  whole  or  part 
in  some  white  enamels. 


22 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  OXIDES  OF  IRON. 

TV/r  ETALLIC  brown,  natural  indian  reds,  Vene- 
tian reds,  purple  oxides,  ochres,  siennas  and 
umbers  come  under  this  head,  and  are  various 
combinations,  consisting  mainly  of  iron  oxide  and 
silica  or  clay  found  in  nature. 

Metallic  brown,  an  iron  oxide  much  used,  is  pre- 
pared after  being  mined  by  simple  roasting  and 
grinding.  It  contains  from  50  to  75  per  cent,  of 
oxide  of  iron,  the  balance  being  clay  and  silica. 

In  the  case  of  the  ochres,  raw  siennas  and  raw 
umbres,  the  earth  is  simply  dried,  washed,  ground 
and  floated;  whereas,  burnt  sienna  and  burnt  um- 
ber is  produced  by  first  roasting  the  raw  product 
to  the  desired  shade,  or  depth  of  color,  and  subject- 
ing it  to  the  further  treatment  above  described. 
Other  red  oxides  are  similarly  treated.  These  nat- 
ural earth  pigments  are  very  stable  and  permanent 
and  should  be  preferred  wherever  possible,  for 
tinting,  or  as  bases  where  lead  or  zinc  is  not  indi- 
cated. 


23 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Some  of  the  strongest  and  best  toned  ochres  are 
produced  in  England,  but  those  most  generally 
used  in  this  country  are  imported  from  various 
parts  of  Europe.  France,  notably,  sends  us  the 
so-called  Rochelle  ochres.  These  ochres  vary  in 
quality  according  to  the  locality  from  which  they 
come,  and  the  care  given  them  in  their  preparation 
for  the  market.  The  difference  between  yellow 
ochre  and  the  various  red  ochres,  or  red  oxides  is 
a  chemical  one.  The  color  in  every  case  is  due  to 
the  iron  they  contain.  The  difference  being  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  yellows,  the  iron  oxide  exists  in 
combination  with  water,  hence,  these  ochres  are 
called  hydrated  iron  oxides;  while  the  red  ochres 
are  anhydrous,  contain  little  or  no  water.  If  yel- 
low ochre  be  roasted,  therefore,  it  becomes  red  or 
dark  brown,  as  the  moisture  is  driven  off.  This  is 
the  case  also  in  the  formation  of  burnt  siennas  and 
burnt  umbers.  The  various  tones  of  yellow  ochre 
depend  upon  the  varying  amount  of  clay  or  silica 
present,  and  the  greater  or  less  percentage  of  com- 
bined water  they  contain. 

Yellow  ochre  has  been  used  for  centuries  in 
painting  and  decorating.  It  is,  to  all  intents,  a 
permanent  pigment,  and  has  no  appreciable  effect 
on  other  pigments,  except,  perhaps,  a  few  of  the 
very  sensitive  lakes,  which  latter  are  too  fugitive  to 
be  used.  It  is  seldom  adulterated  because  of  its 
price,  and  the  fact  that  there  are  vast  quantities  of 

24 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

cheap  ochre  obtainable.  Its  yellowness  is  some- 
times artificially  improved  with  turmeric  or  other 
vegetable  yellows,  or  by  the  admixture  of  chrome 
yellow,  notably  in  producing  so-called  golden  ochre. 
By  pouring  ammonia  water  mixed  with  alcohol 
over  the  suspected  sample,  such  adulterations  can 
usually  be  detected.  If  pure,  the  liquid  will  not  dis- 
color, otherwise,  it  will  be  stained.  Ochres  ground 
in  oil  are  largely  adulterated  with  barytes  to  save 
linseed  oil,  as  pure  ochres  are  light  and  very  ab- 
sorbent. 

Italy  has  famous  sienna  deposits  of  beautiful 
tone  and  texture,  and  the  umbers  come  from  Tur- 
key and  southern  Europe. 

We  produce  some  very  fair  ochres  and  other 
natural  pigments  in  this  country,  but,  as  a  rule, 
they  lack  strength  and  brilliancy,  and  because  of 
their  careless  preparation,  are  not  widely  used  ex- 
cept for  paints  of  a  crude  nature  or  in  the  arts 
where  the  paint  forming  qualities  are  not  the  fac- 
tor. In  truth,  the  average  paint  grinder  prefers, 
when  he  has  cheap  goods  to  produce,  rather  to 
adulterate  the  imported  pigments  with  barytes  or 
some  such  substance,  than  to  grind  the  native  pig- 
ments straight ;  because  he  saves  oil,  and  produces 
a  better  appearing  and  sometimes  stronger  color 
for  tinting  purposes,  than  had  he  used  the  native 
article  pure.  These  earth  colors,  for  the  most 
part,  take  a  great  deal  of  oil  in  grinding,  hence  the 

25 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

use  of  baiytes  as  an  adulterant.  When  we  con- 
sider that  ochres  take  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  and 
barytes  only  7  per  cent,  of  oil  to  make  a  suitable 
paste,  we  can  understand  the  great  saving. 

Venetian  red,  as  originally  used,  was  a  natural 
ferric  oxide  or  oxide  of  iron,  free  from  water  and 
varied  much  in  shade,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  iron  oxide  and  other  substances  such  as  clay  or 
silica,  which  it  contained.  At  present,  the  better 
grades  of  Venetian  red  in  point  of  strength,  and 
tone,  are  produced  by  roasting  copperas,  which  is 
sulphate  of  iron.  Strong  heat  converts  it  into  the 
oxide  forms.  It  is  cheaply  produced,  as  copperas 
is  a  by-product  from  the  large  iron  and  steel  works 
and  the  supply  is  very  great.  The  production  of 
copperas  reds  forms  a  convenient  outlet  for  the 
copperas  thus  produced.  Of  course,  you  seldom 
get  these  oxides  pure,  being  mixed  with  clay,  silica 
or  chalk,  to  improve  their  qualities,  as  paint  form- 
ing materials  and  to  cheapen  the  product,  as  in  the 
case  of  low  grade  Venetian  reds  artificially  pro- 
duced. Strength,  as  a  rule,  is  not  a  requisite  in 
pigments  like  metallic  browns  and  Venetian  reds, 
which  are  used  only  secondarily  as  tinting  colors, 
but  principally  alone  with  oil  and  suitable  drying 
material  as  paint  bases.  Even  tinting  Venetian  red 
is  not  likely  to  be  absolutely  pure  as  it  is  more 
easily  ground  and  better  preserved  in  paste  form 

26 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

when  mixed  or  reduced  with  clay,  chalk  or  barytes. 

Copperas  reds  are  permanent  only  when  free 
from  soluble  salts  and  sulphates.  When  contain- 
ing these  substances  or  traces  of  acid  are  still  pres- 
ent from  the  copperas,  an  injurious  action  is  mani- 
fest on  some  of  the  vegetable  pigments  when  used 
in  conjunction,  and  when  used  alone  on  iron,  cor- 
rosion or  rust  will  result. 

The  indian  reds  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  nat- 
ural origin,  being  another  variety  of  ferric  oxide, 
or  red  ochre  of  great  purity  and  having  a  slightly 
purplish  hue.  Indian  reds  are  imported  and  also 
to  some  extent  produced  in  this  country. 

Metallic  browns  are  similar  to  indian  reds  in 
composition,  but  may  contain  less  iron  and  less 
care  is  taken  in  their  production. 

CARBON  is  the  coloring  agent  in  almost  all  black 
pigments.  These  pigments  are  of  organic  origin, 
being  products  of  either  animal  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter. In  a  general  way,  these  pigments  may  be  divi- 
ded into  two  classes  depending  upon  their  manner 
of  production— charcoal  blacks  and  soot  blacks. 

Charcoal  blacks  include  ivory,  bone  or  drop 
black,  mineral,  cork  and  vine  blacks.  The  soot 
blacks  include  lamp  black,  vegetable  blacks  and 
carbon  or  gas  black. 

Ivory  and  Bone  Blacks  are  made  by  calcining 
bones  in  some  form  of  retort  or  closed  vessel, 

27 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

which  can  be  subjected  to  great  heat.  The  quality 
of  the  product  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
bones  used,  and  the  temperature  at  which  the  cal- 
cining process  is  carried  on,  together  with  subse- 
quent treatment.  The  best  ivory  black  was  origi- 
nally made  from  calcined  ivory  chips.  It  is  a 
dense,  brilliant  black,  quite  permanent,  but  not  so 
powerful  as  some  of  the  vegetable  blacks.  It  con- 
sists of  bone  earth  stained  with  a  certain  percent- 
age of  carbon  formed  in  the  calcining  process. 
When  used  alone,  it  is  superior  to  most  other 
blacks,  but  when  combined  with  other  pigments  of 
organic  origin,  it  is  apt  to  exert  a  bleaching  action 
on  such  substances,  being  an  active  decolorizer  be- 
cause of  the  phosphate  of  lime  it  contains.  Its  ab- 
sorbent powers  are  also  very  great,  rapidly  taking 
up  moisture. 

Charcoal  Blacks  are  produced  by  calcining  in 
closed  vessels,  wood  and  woody  fibre;  such  ma- 
terials as  cocoa  nut  shells,  the  stones  from  various 
fruits,  particles  of  cork  and  the  stems  of  grape 
vines.  Frankfort  black  is  made  from  wine  lees. 
Charcoal  blacks  have  the  same  decolorizing  prop- 
erty as  bone  blacks,  but  in  lesser  degree. 

Mineral  black  is  made  from  certain  bituminous 
shales  or  coals  by  calcination. 

Lamp  black  is  produced  by  burning  rosin,  rosin 
oil,  fats,  and  fatty  oils,  coal  tar  oils,  and  petroleum 

28 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

residues  with  a  restricted  supply  of  air,  whereby 
much  of  the  carbou  they  contain  is  deposited  in  the 
form  of  soot.  The  best  and  finest  grades  of  black 
are  those  which  are  condensed  furthest  from  the 
condensing  chambers.  They  contain  from  80  to 
90  per  cent,  of  carbon,  which  substance  regulates 
their  strength.  The  strongest  black  is  that  made 
by  condensing  the  products  of  combustion  of  nat- 
ural gas;  known  as  gas  or  carbon  black.  It  has 
remarkable  strength  and  must  be  thoroughly  and 
finely  ground  to  give  good  results.  It  is  used  to 
strengthen  weaker  blacks  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  black  paints. 

We  must  not  overlook  graphite  or  plumbago,  a 
natural  form  of  carbon  before  mentioned.  It  is  not 
affected  by  most  chemicals  and  gases,  takes  a  large 
amount  of  oil  and  makes  a  very  superior  paint  for 
all  metallic  surfaces. 

Ivory  black  is  best  for  decorative  effects,  where 
pure  color  is  to  be  used.  Carbon  black  is  indicated 
for  tinting  when  brown  gray  colors  are  desired. 
Lamp  black,  when  blue  grays  are  required.  Vege- 
table blacks  do  not  make  good  paint  for  metallic 
surfaces. 

The  general  rule  may  be  laid  down  that  metallic 
or  mineral  pigments  are  best  on  metal ;  mineral  pig- 
ments, containing  silica  on  stone  work ;  and  carbon- 
aceous or  vegetable  colors  on  wood  work.    For 

29 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

this  reason,  white  lead  containing  carbon  black  or 
lamp  black  seems  to  produce  a  more  lasting  coat 
on  wood,  than  white  lead  alone. 


30 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  CHEMICAL  COLORS. 

/^HROME  yellows,  in  a  general  way,  are  pro- 
duced by  the  chemical  combination  of  potas- 
sium chromate  and  lead  acetate,  or  by  digesting 
lead  sulphate  with  a  warm  solution  of  potassium 
chromate. 

The  so-called  standard  shades  are  produced, 
varying  somewhat  in  tone,  according  to  the  process 
of  manufacture  and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the 
adulteration  contained. 

They  are  distinguished  as  light,  medium,  and 
dark  or  lemon,  orange  and  red  chrome. 

Alum,  barytes  and  lead  sulphate  are  used  in 
preparing  the  lighter  shades,  and  lead  oxide  for 
the  dark  or  red  chromes.  In  passing,  it  might  be 
said  that  all  chemical  colors  are  subject  to  more  or 
less  adulteration. 

This  has  become  a  fine  art  born  of  the  necessity 
for  cheap  colors  adaptable  to  the  requirements  of 
certain  branches  of  the  paint  trade. 

There  are  other  methods  of  producing  chrome 
yellows,  which  need  not  be  entered  into. 

Chrome  yellows  are  not  permanent,  but  will 
rapidly  deteriorate,  unless  protected  by  varnish; 
even  then,  they  are  uncertain.  Other  organic  pig- 
ments affect  them  injuriously,  and  when  subjected 

31 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

to  the  action  of  sulphurous  gases  they  darken,  as 
does  white  lead. 

When  mixed  with  prussian  blue,  the  latter  color 
is,  sooner  or  later,  destroyed,  a  point  well  worth 
remembering. 

CADMIUM  YELLOW,  or  sulphide  of  cadmium,  is 
made  by  combining  some  salt  of  cadmium  with  sul- 
phur. It  varies  from  pure  yellow  to  orange  red, 
and  is  a  fairly  permanent  pigment. 

BARIUM  CHROMATE  is  a  pure  yellow,  having 
good  working  qualities  and  is  the  most  permanent 
of  the  chromates  used  in  paint. 

MARS  YELLOW  is  artificially  prepared  yellow 
ochre.  It  may  be  made  by  precipitating  ferrous 
sulphate,  (green  vitriol)  solution  and  alum  with 
caustic  soda,  potash,  or  lime.  The  amount  of  alum 
in  the  iron  solution  governs  the  depth  of  shade  in 
the  resulting  precipitated  pigment.  It  is  bright  in 
tone,  and  the  shades  vary  from  pale  yellow  to 
orange,  and  by  heat  various  darker  colors  are  pro- 
duced including  red  and  purple.  It  is  almost  as 
permanent  as  the  siennas  and  works  well  in  both 
oil  and  water  colors.  Gold  and  russet  shades  are 
readily  produced  by  it,  and  herein  it  has  much  value 
as  a  pigment. 

NAPLES  YELLOW,  or  lead  antimoniate  is  also  a 
pigment  used  by  artists.  It  has  a  fair  degree  of 
permanency,  but  it  injures  and  is  injured  by  some 
organic  pigments,  including  many  of  the  lakes  and, 

32 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

hence,  is  unsafe  to  use  in  combination  with  them. 

YELLOW  LAKE,  or  Dutch  pink,  is  a  lake  produced 
from  several  sources,  principally,  however,  from 
quercitron  bark,  from  several  varieties  of  the  oak 
tree.  A  hot  water  decoction  of  the  bark  is  treated 
with  a  solution  of  alum  and  weak  ammonia.  The 
resulting  precipitant  is  the  lake. 

It  is  used  mainly  in  water  colors,  but  is  very 
fugitive. 

CHROME  GREENS  are  produced  by  a  combination 
of  prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow.  This  is  usual- 
ly done,  not  by  mixing  the  separate  colors  dry,  but 
in  the  process  of  manufacture,  chromate  of  lead 
and  prussian  blue  solutions  are  combined  in  pro- 
portions to  suit  the  shade  required  and  precipi- 
tated together  under  proper  conditions. 

The  ordinary  green  we  meet  with,  both  dry 
and  ground  in  oil,  contains  only  10  to  20  per  cent, 
of  pure  chrome  green,  the  balance  being  adultera- 
tion. The  pure  color  itself  is  too  powerful  and 
not  suitable  to  form  a  good  paint  for  ordinary 
purposes,  nor  will  it  lend  itself  well  to  being 
ground  in  oil  without  some  admixture  of  adulter- 
ants. 

Chrome  greens  thus  prepared,  are  not  per- 
manent, fading  after  a  time  and  losing  all  bril- 
liancy of  tone. 

GREEN  OXIDE  OF  CHROMIUM,  or  true  chrome 
green  is  a  permanent  color  produced  by  reducing 

33 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

bichromate  of  potassium  with  sulphur  or  starch  by 
a  suitable  process.  It  is  a  greyish  green  powder 
and  has  considerable  body.  Its  use  is  confined  to 
artists. 

It  is  found  also  in  nature  as  chrome  ochre  con- 
taining a  small  percentage  of  oxide  of  chromium 
mixed  with  clay. 

EMERALD  OXIDE  OF  CHROMIUM  is  another  per- 
manent green  color  of  deep  bluish  cast  made  from 
potassium  bichromate  and  boracic  acid.  It  has  no 
action  on  other  pigments  and  can  be  used  in  oil  or 
water  with  equal  facility.  Its  use  should  be  more 
extended.  It  is  employed  mostly  as  an  artist's 
color. 

TRUE  EMERALD  GREEN  is  some  form  of  paris 
green  made  from  blue  vitriol,  acetic  acid  and  white 
arsenic.  While  very  beautiful  in  shade  from  its 
brightness  and  vivacity  of  color,  its  drawbacks  are 
so  many  as  to  have  caused  its  use  as  a  paint  to  be 
practically  discontinued.  Though  permanent 
when  used  as  an  oil  color  and  so  brilliant  as  to 
cause  ordinary  chrome  green  to  appear  dull  and 
lifeless;  it  is  very  transparent,  weak,  and  above 
all,  extremely  poisonous,  as  are  all  the  copper  ar- 
senate greens.  It  is  particularly  adapted  for  use 
on  surfaces  exposed  to  the  action  of  salt  water, 
where  it  is  quite  permanent,  and  is,  therefore,  used 
in  paints  and  anti-fouling  compositions  for  ships 

bottoms. 

34 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Paris  green  is  of  interest  mainly  as  an  insecti- 
cide. Its  purity  can  be  tested  by  adding  a  little  of 
the  suspected  sample  to  a  boiling  solution  of  dilute 
nitric  or  muriatic  acid.  It  should  dissolve  perfect- 
ly and  give  no  precipitate  when  a  few  drops  of 
barium  chloride  solution  are  added.  An  undis- 
solved residue  indicates  barytes  or  some  similar 
adulterant. 

BRONZE  GREENS,  BOTTLE  GREENS  AND  QUAKER 
GREENS  are  combinations  of  chrome  green  with  car- 
bon black  together  with  large  proportions  of  paris 
white  or  barytes.  Ochres  combined  with  lamp 
black  will  also  produce  bottle  greens  rather  dull 
in  tone. 

ULTRAMARINE  GREEN  is  a  modified  form  of  ul- 
tramarine blue.  Its  use  is  limited  to  water  colors 
in  frescoing  and  similar  work. 

ULTRAMARINE  BLUE  occurs  naturally  in  Lapis 
Lazuli  and  was  formerly  obtained  from  this  miner- 
al by  a  simple  process  of  heating,  cooling  quickly  in 
water  and  further  careful  washing  and  separation 
of  the  coarser  particles.  The  natural  ultramar- 
ine is  very  expensive  and  hence  little  used.  Arti- 
ficial ultramarine  is  prepared  by  heating  together 
in  closed  crucibles,  in  a  furnace,  a  mixture  of  china 
clay,  silica,  sodium  carbonate,  sodium  sulphate, 
charcoal  and  sulphur.    After  cooling  the  mass 

35 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Foemulae. 

slowly,  it  is  powdered  and  gently  roasted  with  the 

addition  of  a  little  sulphur. 

The  calcining  or  roasting  process  may  be  re- 
peated until  the  proper  color  is  obtained. 

In  color,  it  is  pure  blue  and  of  brilliant  tone 
when  of  good  quality.  It  has,  however,  little 
strength.  It  has  no  influence  on  nor  is  it  affected 
by  other  pigments;  is  not  injured  by  heat  or  the 
alkalies,  but  is  decolorized  or  modified  by  acids 
and  cold  alum  solutions.  Oriental  blue  is  a  form 
of  ultramarine  containing  much  silica. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE,  Berlin  blue,  or  Chinese  blue  is 
a  dark  blue  transparent,  and  very  powerful  stain- 
ing color,  used  solely  for  tinting.  There  are  at 
least  three  distinct  kinds  of  Prussian  blue  depend- 
ing upon  the  method  of  manufacture  and  the  ma- 
terials used.  The  ordinary  prussian  blue  is  made 
by  adding  ferrous  sulphate  (copperas)  solution 
to  a  solution  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.  The 
precipitate  formed  is  oxidized  by  dilute  nitric  acid 
or  chloride  of  lime.  After  washing,  it  is  treated 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  again  washed  with 
water. 

Prussian  blue,  when  pressed  or  rubbed,  should 
show  a  coppery  hue  in  the  lump.  The  best  for 
painters  and  artists  use,  is  the  insoluble  variety. 
This  color  is  destroyed  by  heat  and  will  not  with- 
stand the  action  of  alkalies,  moreover,  sunlight  will 
cause  it  to  fade  more  or  less.      It  is  largely  adul- 

36 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

terated  for  the  pure  article  is  somewhat  expensive. 

CELESTIAL  BLUE  is  occasionally  used  as  a  fresco 
color  and  by  artists.  It  is  made  by  combining  ox- 
ide of  tin  or  potassium  stannate  with  cobalt  chlor- 
ide with  further  heating  of  the  precipitate  with  sil- 
ica. It  is  a  permanent  pigment  of  a  greenish  blue 
tone. 

COBALT  BLUE  is  a  name  applied  to  several  blue 
pigments,  the  best  known  of  these  is  a  combination 
of  alumina  and  oxide  of  cobalt.  Another  is  made 
from  phosphate  of  cobalt  and  still  another  from 
the  arseniate.  Cobalt  blues  work  well  in  oil  and 
water  and  are  not  affected  by  light,  moisture  or 
oxygen,  and  are  practically  permanent.  They  mix 
well  and  are  unaffected  by  most  other  pigments. 

INDIGO  is  of  little  interest  to  the  painter,  except 
from  a  historical  standpoint.  It  is  prepared  from 
a  shrub  grown  extensively  in  India.  The  plants 
are  macerated  in  water,  allowed  to  ferment  and 
boiled.  The  blue  precipitate  is  separated,  pressed 
and  dried.  It  is  also  prepared  artificially.  It  is 
a  rich  transparent  blue  much  used  by  artists,  and 
in  staining  and  dyeing.     It  is  very  fugitive. 

RED  LEAD  or  oxide  of  lead  is  made  by  heating 
metallic  lead  in  furnaces  of  proper  construction. 
Its  tone  depending  upon  the  care  in  roasting  the 
pig  lead  from  which  it  is  made. 

ORANGE  MINERAL  is  made  by  roasting  white 
lead  in  the  same  way  that  red  lead  is  produced  from 

37 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Fokmtjlae. 

the  metal.  I  have  mentioned  there  substances  here 
on  account  of  their  extensive  use  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  vermillions. 

TRUE  VERMILLION  is  a  sulphide  of  mercury 
found  in  nature  and  also  made  by  combining  sul- 
phur and  quicksilver  under  suitable  conditions. 
While  a  brilliant  red,  it  is  very  expensive.  Heat 
destroys  it  and  exposure  to  atmospheric  influences 
causes  it  to  turn  dark.  All  work  painted  with 
vermillion  should  be  varnished.  The  cheaper  ver- 
millions are  mainly  mixtures  of  red  lead  or  orange 
mineral  with  eosine,  a  bright  red  aniline  color,  to- 
gether with  some  base  like  barytes  or  terra  alba. 
The  amount  of  the  latter  substances  used  depend- 
ing upon  the  price  at  which  the  vermillion  must  be 
sold.  In  some  cases  there  is  no  lead  present,  being 
simply  barytes,  terra  alba,  or  clay,  tinted  with 
eosine  or  red  aniline  dye.  There  are  some  special 
reds  on  the  market,  mixtures  of  various  sorts, 
some  containing  iron  oxides.  None  of  these  ver- 
millions are  absolutely  permanent.  The  pinkish 
shades  fade  more  quickly  as  depending  on  the  ani- 
line they  contain  for  color,  while  those  containing 
large  percentages  of  lead  or  iron  oxides  are  more 
permanent. 

THE  LAKES  are  insoluble  pigments,  made  by 
precipitating  organic  coloring  matter  with  metallic 
salts.  For  instance,  yellow  lake,  before  men- 
tioned. 

38 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

CARMINE  is  a  brilliant  red  pigment  prepared 
from  cochineal,  which  is  the  dried  wingless  females 
of  a  species  of  coccus,  a  small  insect  found  on  sev- 
eral species  of  cactus.  The  coloring  matter  is  ex- 
tracted with  boiling  water  to  which  alum  or  some 
other  metallic  salt  is  added  to  bring  about  precipi- 
tation.    When  washed  and  dried  it  is  ready  for  use. 

The  various  red  lakes  sold  under  the  name  of 
purple,  crimson,  or  scarlet  lakes  are  made  from 
cochineal  by  precipitating  cochineal  extract  with 
solutions  of  potassium  carbonate  and  alum.  Car- 
mine lakes,  while  very  beautiful,  have  a  tendency 
to  fade  or  turn  brown,  thus  losing  their  brilliancy. 
They  are  used  to  some  extent  in  oil  and  japan  and 
as  fresco  colors. 

THE  ANALINE  COLORS  are  obtained  from  coal  tar 
or  nitro  benzole.  If  nitro  benzole  is  treated  with 
iron  filings  and  acetic  acid  in  the  proper  appar- 
atus, aniline  is  produced.  Various  aniline  colors 
are  made  from  this  product  by  treatment  with 
chemicals.  The  processes  are  too  complicated  to 
be  entered  into  and  of  little  practical  interest  to  the 
paint  trade. 

The  various  aniline  colors  have  replaced  the 
vegetable  lakes  in  large  part,  and  find  extended  use 
as  stains;  in  improving  the  color  and  tone  of 
cheaper  pigments;  and  in  the  production  of  arti- 
ficial vermillions  before  mentioned.    Aniline  col- 

39 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ors  find  their  chief  use,  however,  as  dye  stuffs  for 
all  possible  purposes  where  dyes  are  required. 


40 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    PIGMENTS 
COLORS  IN  OIL.  JAPAN  AND  WATER. 

PIGMENTS  are  often  classed  according  to  their 

color,  hue,  brightness  and  purity.  Their 
transparency  and  opacity  must  also  be  considered. 
The  more  important  classification,  however,  is 
their  permanency  in  oil  or  water  paints. 

In  a  general  way  they  may  be  divided  into  min- 
eral and  organic,  depending  upon  their  origin. 
The  mineral  pigments,  as  a  rule,  are  much  more 
permanent  than  the  organic,  (vegetable  or  animal). 

Pigments  may  also  be  soluble  or  insoluble, 
crystalline  or  amorphous,  chemically  active  or  in- 
ert. 

The  stability  of  pigments  may  be  tested  in  vari- 
ous ways,  either  from  the  known  physical  and 
chemical  make  up  of  the  various  substances,  by 
a  study  of  the  paints  in  which  they  have  been  used, 
and  from  various  experimental  tests  for  per- 
manency. The  following  table  indicates  the  vari- 
ous degrees  of  permanency  as  nearly  as  can  be  ar- 
rived at  as  applying  to  paints  mixed  with  oil  as  a 
medium : 

41 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 


Zinc  White 
Flake  White 
White  Lead 
Yellow  Ochre 
Eaw  Sienna 
Mars  Yellow 
Cadmium  Yellow 
Venetian  Eed 
The  Eed  Oxides 
Indian  Eed 
Burnt  Sienna 


CLASS  I. 

Oxide  of  Chromium 
Cobalt  Green 
Green  Ultramarine 
Terra  Verte 
CobaltBlue 
Ultramarine  Blue 
Eaw  Umber 
Burnt  Umber 
Ivory  Black 
Lamp  Black 
Graphite 


To  which  list  might  be  added  the  silicious  earths, 
barytes  and  paris  white. 

CLASS  II. 
Chrome  Green  Vandyke  Brown 

Emerald  Green  Prussian  Blue 

The  various  madder  lakes  used  by  artists  also 
have  fair  permanence. 

CLASS  III. 

Chrome  Yellows  Carmine 

Asphaltum  Crimson  Lakes 

Dutch  Pink  Artificial  Vermillions 

Vermillion  Maroon  Lakes 


42 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

When  water  is  used  in  place  of  oil  as  a  medium, 
white  lead,  flake  white,  cadmium  yellow,  artificial 
vermillion  and  chrome  yellow  are  very  treacherous 
pigments  to  use.  On  walls  or  plaster,  where  the 
lime  is  fresh  and  still  caustic  or  strongly  alkiline, 
the  colors  inadmissable  in  water  should  not  be 
used.     In  this  class  is  prussian  blue  also. 

In  the  selection  of  pigments  to  be  used  in  paint, 
due  care  should  be  exercised  that  they  have  no  in- 
jurious influence  on  the  linseed  oil,  or  other  media 
with  which  they  are  mixed ;  that  they  absorb  a  large 
amount  of  oil  which  insures  greater  durability; 
that  they  are  not  fugitive  or  fading  and  that  they 
are  finely  ground. 

Inert  pigments  are  those  which  have  no  chem- 
ical action  on  the  vehicles  with  which  they  are 
mixed  or  on  other  pigments  with  which  they  are 
combined.  Such  pigments  are  barytes,  silica,  gyp- 
sum and  the  various  oxides  with  some  few  excep- 
tions. 

Chemical  pigments,  on  the  other  hand,  the  car- 
bonates, chromates,  those  containing  sulphur  and 
those  of  organic  origin,  in  many  cases  have  a  chem- 
ical action  on  linseed  oil  and  act  or  are  acted  upon 
injuriously  by  other  pigments  with  which  they  are 
combined.  White  lead,  chrome  yellow,  prussian 
blue,  vermillion  and  the  lakes  are  good  examples. 
The  binding  quality  of  the  linseed  oil  may  be  in- 

43 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

jured  or  destroyed,  or  darkening,  fading,  or  dele- 
terious changes  in  the  colors  may  occur. 

The  most  satisfactory  pigments  for  general  use, 
from  the  foregoing,  would  be  the  ochres,  raw  and 
burnt  sienna,  raw  and  burnt  umber,  the  oxide  reds, 
copperas  reds,  ultramarine  blue,  cobalt  blue,  lamp 
black  and  drop  black. 

Pigments,  such  as  white  lead,  zinc,  the  oxides  of 
iron,  the  blacks  and  chemical  colors  are,  as  a  rule, 
purchased  by  the  painter  in  paste  form,  ground  in 
linseed  oil,  when  for  use  as  bases,  or  as  tinting 
mediums,  in  oil  paint.  In  paste  form  they  are 
more  convenient  for  immediate  use.  The  process 
of  grinding  with  oil  has  made  them  finer  in  texture 
and  in  better  condition  to  mix  readily  with  oil  and 
other  pigments. 

The  white  pigments  are  usually  ground  in  re- 
fined or  bleached  linseed  oil  to  obtain  the  maximum 
whiteness.  In  grinding  most  other  pigments,  or- 
dinary raw  oil  is  used,  with  the  exception  of  some 
blacks,  and  other  colors  which  dry  poorly,  in  which 
case  boiled  oil,  containing  dryer,  is  substituted. 

Very  cheap  oil  colors  are  sometimes  ground  in 
adulterated  oils.  In  the  purchase  of  such  mater- 
ials, one  must  rely  largely  on  the  reputation  of  the 
maker  producing  them. 

Coach  Colors  are  carefully  selected  pigments, 

ground  in  turpentine  and  japan  dryer  to  produce 
quick  drying  flat  colors.     Much  care  is  used  in 

44 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

their  preparation,  and  frequently  the  color  is  re- 
ground  several  times  to  produce  the  requisite  de- 
gree of  fineness.  During  the  process  of  grinding, 
the  mills  are  cooled  with  water  so  that  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  milling  process  will  not  affect  the 
brilliancy  of  the  color  used. 

Colors  Ground  in  Water  are  of  interest  to  the 
fresco  painter,  and  consist  of  various  pigments 
ground  in  that  medium  into  which,  in  some  cases, 
a  little  carbonate  of  soda  is  added.  A  little  glue 
size  or  glycerine  may  also  be  combined.  The  size 
to  hold  up  the  pigment  from  settling  and  the  gly- 
cerine to  prevent  hardening  and  undue  evapora- 
tion of  the  water. 

Testing  of  Paints  and  Colors. 

Under  white  lead  and  linseed  oil  we  have  given 
tests  for  the  purity  of  these  important  substances. 
To  make  tests,  it  is  always  well  to  have  samples  on 
hand,  if  possible,  of  known  purity  for  comparison. 
In  testing  colors  for  tinting;  strength,  tone  and 
transparency  are  to  be  noted.  First,  determine 
the  fineness  of  grinding  which  will  influence  the 
staining  power  to  a  marked  degree.  Then  add 
equal  parts  of  weighed  samples  of  the  colors  to  ten 
or  twenty  times  by  weight  of  white  zinc  or  white 
lead  in  oil ;  use  the  same  pigment  for  both  samples, 
because  the  same  colors  have  very  different  tint- 

45 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ing  power  in  different  whites.  Spread  the  reduced 
pigments  on  glass,  side  by  side.  Further  reduc- 
tions can  be  made;  the  extreme  is  usually  fifty  to 
one.  Transparency  and  brilliancy  can  be  judged 
by  spreading  thin  layers  of  the  samples  side  by 
side  on  glass,  and  judging  by  the  eye. 

The  covering  power  of  bulk  paints,  such  as 
white  lead,  is  a  most  important  consideration  as 
also  is  the  density  or  opacity  of  the  coat.  These 
features  depend  upon  the  pigment  used,  its  fine- 
ness, the  amount  of  oil  and  turpentine  or  the  pro- 
portions of  each  used  in  thinning  and  the  manner 
of  applying  the  paint.  In  comparing  two  white 
leads  or  other  pigments  ready  for  use,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  same  amount  and  kind  of  thinners  be 
added  and  similar  tools  and  methods  be  used  to 
spread  the  paint  to  be  compared. 

The  spreading  power  of  a  given  quantity  of 
paint  or  varnish  depends,  of  course,  largely  on  the 
kind  and  condition  of  the  surface  to  be  covered. 
Cement  and  other  absorbent  surfaces  require  much 
more  paint  than  non-absorbent  surfaces  like  the 
metals.  A  gallon  of  paint  ready  for  use  will  cover 
from  350  to  500  square  feet  of  planed  boards,  de- 
pending upon  whether  it  be  the  priming  or  suc- 
ceeding coats.  The  latter  covering  the  greater 
surface.  On  metallic  surfaces,  from  600  to  800 
square  feet  will  be  covered  by  the  same  amount. 

46 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Varnish  of  good  body  will  cover  somewhat  more 
surface  than  paint,  particularly  when  the  work  has 
been  filled ;  600  square  feet  to  the  gallon  is  a  good 
average.  Stains  and  other  liquids  of  thin  body 
will  cover  from  600  to  800  square  feet  to  the  gallon, 
except  on  very  absorbent  surfaces.  A  pound  of 
floor  wax  should  cover,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
at  least  1,000  square  feet  of  surface. 


47 


CHAPTER  V. 
OILS  AND  SOLVENTS. 

LINSEED  OIL,  of  all  vehicles  used  to  form,  with 
pigment,  paint,  linseed  oil  is  the  most  important, 
and  the  painter  cannot  know  too  much  about  this 
substance,  of  which  from  30  to  35  million  gallons 
are  produced  and  consumed  annually  in  this  coun- 
try alone,  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  paints, 
varnishes,  oil  cloths,  and  linoleums. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  other  drying  oils 
more  or  less  adapted  for  paint,  but  with  few  excep- 
tions, little  used  in  general  practice.  We  shall 
consider  the  exceptions  a  little  later. 

Linseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed  of  the  flax 
plant,  cultivated  sometimes  for  its  fibre,  otherwise 
for  its  seed,  from  which  to  produce  oil.  Flax  is 
largely  grown  for  the  latter  purpose  in  the  region 
about  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  Eussia,  in  Egypt,  India 
and  North  and  South  America.  The  domestic  sup- 
ply comes  mostly  from  the  southwest,  middle  west 
and  northwestern  States.  Seed  of  average  quality 
contains  about  39  per  cent,  of  oil,  the  residue  being 
organic  matter;  cellulose,  phosphates,  etc.  The 
quality  and  yield  varies  considerably,  depending 
on  the  nature  of  the  seed,  the  presence  or  absence 

48 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

of  other  seed,  such  as  dotter  and  wild  mustard,  the 
conditions  of  ripening  and  the  locality  in  which  it 
is  grown. 

The  process  of  manufacture  is  as  follows :  The 
seed  is  ground  to  a  meal  and  pressed  cold  or  hot, 
or  the  oil  is  extracted  from  the  meal  by  the  use  of 
a  suitable  solvent,  such  as  benzine  or  carbon  bi- 
sulphide. The  solvent  process  is  used  in  produc- 
ing the  so-called  new  process  oil;  old  process  oil 
being  simply  meal  hot  or  cold  placed  in  bags  and 
the  oil  obtained  by  hydraulic  pressure.  When  heat 
is  used,  from  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  oil  is  extracted, 
while  by  the  cold  process  barely  25  per  cent,  of  oil 
can  be  obtained.  Cold  pressed  oil  is,  without  ques- 
tion, superior  to  hot  pressed  oil  for  paints  and  var- 
nishes and  may  account  in  part  for  the  better  wear- 
ing qualities  of  the  paint  applied  years  ago,  when 
cold  pressed  oil  was  in  general  use.  There  is  now 
practically  none  in  the  market.  Cold  pressed  oil 
has  a  pale  yellow  color  and  a  pleasant  sweet  taste, 
while  hot  pressed  oil  is  darker  and  has  a  stronger, 
somewhat  biting  taste.  Evidently  more  mucilage 
and  substances  of  no  value,  of  perhaps,  some  det- 
riment, are  produced  when  heat  is  used  to  increase 
the  yield. 

Linseed  oil  is  soluble  in  turpentine  and  benzine 
in  any  proportion,  but  very  slightly  soluble  in  al- 
cohol. It  boils  at  about  446  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
On  boiling  several  hours,  it  becomes  a  thick  syrup ; 

49 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

with  dryers  added,  and  moderate  boiling,  it  be- 
comes true  boiled  oil  as  met  with  commercially.  It 
forms  an  emulsion  with  water  on  the  introduction 
of  a  weak  alkali  and  saponifies  in  stronger  alka- 
lies. The  drying  property  is  due  to  its  power  of 
absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air  which  causes  the 
oil,  when  spread  in  thin  layers,  to  oxidize  and  be- 
come a  hard,  neutral  substance.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity at  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  0.932.  For  ordin- 
ary paint  it  is  used  raw  with  the  admixture  of 
liquid  dryers  and  is  more  durable  than  boiled  oil, 
because  the  oil  in  being  boiled  has  already  been 
partly  oxidized  and  when  oxidization  of  oil  is  com- 
plete and  the  oil  becomes  hard,  it  tends  to  brittle- 
ness  and  eventually  perishes,  leaving  the  pigment 
to  chalk  off.  Eaw  oil,  likewise,  works  easier  under 
the  brush  and  is  less  likely  to  blister.  Further- 
more, boiled  oil  is  likely  to  be  adulterated  with 
rosin,  rosin  oil,  and  oils  of  mineral  origin. 

Boiled  oil  is  commonly  produced  by  adding 
cheap  heavy  bodied  rosin  or  oil  dryer  to  oil  cold, 
or  slightly  heated,  so  that  you  seldom  get  real 
boiled  oil  anyway,  except  from  a  varnish  factory. 

Eaw  oil  is  adulterated  with  cotton  seed  oil, 
mineral,  rosin,  and  occasionally  fish  oil.  Its  low 
price,  however,  precludes  much  adulteration  with 
other  vegetable  or  animal  oils.  It  takes  fire  at  be- 
tween 600  degrees  and  700  degrees  Fahrenheit.    If 

50 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

mineral  or  rosin  oil  is  present,  it  flashes  at  a  lower 
temperature. 

Pure  linseed  oil  may  vary  in  composition.  It 
may  contain  a  large  percentage  of  foots,  mucil- 
age and  other  foreign  and  non-drying  substances, 
and  it  may  contain  an  excess  of  water,  which  hin- 
ders drying  also.  To  be  at  its  best,  it  should  be 
tanked  and  well  settled  for  a  few  months.  Lin- 
seed oil  is  refined  or  decolorized  by  agitation  with  a 
small  percentage  of  sulphuric  acid,  by  mixing  it 
with  fuller's  earth  and  filtration,  and  with  the  use 
of  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  bichromate  of  potash  and 
in  various  other  ways.  Refined  oils  should  not  be 
used  for  outside  painting,  being  adapted  only  for 
use  in  varnishes  and  similar  products  or  for  use 
in  the  arts,  where  paleness  and  freedom  from  me- 
chanical and  other  substances  is  necessary. 

Tests  for  Purity  of  Linseed  Oil. 

Place  one  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  on  ten 
drops  of  oil.  If  pure,  the  oil  will  pass  in  color  from 
orange  through  red  to  brown.  Rosin  oil,  if  pres- 
ent, gives  a  brown  color  at  once  turning  to  black. 
If  it  contains  fish  oil,  the  first  color  is  violet. 

Rosin  oil  may  be  detected  by  the  increase  in 
density  of  the  oil  and  by  the  odor  and  general  ap- 
pearance. 

If  a  sample  of  linseed  oil  containing  mineral  oil 

51 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

be  spread  on  glass  and  allowed  to  dry,  if  much  min- 
eral oil  is  present,  it  will  sweat  out  of  the  drying 
layer  in  drops  or  form  a  wet  greasy  surface  on  the 
drying  oil  and  tend  to  turn  the  oil  yellow. 

Another  test  for  mineral  oil  is  to  dissolve  a 
small  portion  of  the  sample  in  glacial  acetic  acid. 
Linseed  oil  will  dissolve,  but  mineral  oil  will  not  in 
this  acid. 

Much  oil  from  Calcutta  seed  was  formerly  used 
in  this  country.  The  better  grades  of  domestic  oil 
as  now  produced  have  forced  it  from  the  market. 
For  practical  purposes  it  is  not  worth  the  differ- 
ence in  cost. 

CHINA  WOOD  Oil,  or  tung  oil  is  the  best  drying 
oil  known.  This  is  universally  used  in  China  in 
paints,  lacquers,  and  water-proofing  materials, 
and  is  now  being  used,  more  or  less,  among  var- 
nish makers,  both  here  and  in  Europe,  because  of 
the  excellent  qualities  it  possesses. 

It  is  expressed  both  cold  and  hot  from  the  seeds 
of  a  tree  growing  in  China  and  Japan.  The  seeds 
contain  from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  oil.  Its  drying 
properties  are  remarkable  in  that,  when  spread, 
it  dries  throughout  from  top  to  bottom  at  the  same 
time,  not  forming  a  skin  as  linseed  oil,  and  some 
other  of  the  drying  oils.  It  has  valuable  water  re- 
sisting qualities  forming  durable  water-proofing 
and  moisture  resisting  varnishes.  It  cannot  very 
well  be  used  in  the  raw  state,  as  it  dries  opaque, 

52 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

but  when  boiled  with  or  without  dryer  at  about 
230  degrees  Fahrenheit  it  can  be  used  the  same  as 
linseed  oil  and  dries  transparent,  with  a  soft,  vel- 
vety lustre.  It  is  well  adapted  for  oiling  floors 
and  in  the  preparation  of  floor  paints  and  varnish- 
es, and  to  impart  drying  qualities  and  elasticity  to 
cheap  varnishes.  The  average  price  at  which  it  is 
sold  is  60  cents  to  70  cents  per  gallon,  and  merits 
the  painter's  careful  examination.  Its  color  is 
pale  yellow  and  the  oil  has  a  tallowy  or  dripping 
odor.  It  is  used  also  in  soap  making  and  as  an 
illuminant. 

POPPY  SEED  OIL  is  used  in  paint  and  varnishes 
to  some  extent  in  Europe,  but  in  this  country  main- 
ly in  artists  colors.  It  is  expressed  from  the  seed 
of  the  poppy  plant  which  grows  in  the  eastern  coun- 
tries about  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  and  is  the  plant  from  which  opium  is  ob- 
tained. The  seeds  contain  about  60  per  cent,  of 
oil.  Its  color  is  light  yellow  or  white.  The  dry- 
ing qualities  are  good,  and  it  does  not  turn  yellow 
so  readily  as  linseed  oil. 

WALNUT  OIL  expressed  from  the  fruit  of  the  wal- 
nut tree,  growing  in  Europe  and  America,  is  ano- 
ther drying  oil  used  extensively  in  Europe.  The 
fruit  contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  oil. 

Of  other  drying  oils  might  be  mentioned  Hemp- 
seed,  Candle  nut,  Castor,  and  Cedar  nut  oils. 

SPIRITS  OF  TURPENTINE  is  obtained  from  the 

53 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

resinous  sap  of  several  varieties  of  pine  trees.  The 
domestic  supply  conies  from  the  southern  pine, 
which  grows  profusely  in  all  the  south  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  Coast  States.  The  trees  are  boxed  in 
March  or  April,  that  is,  V  shaped  apertures  are 
cut  in  the  trunk,  so  made  as  to  retain  the  sap,  or 
oleo  resin  as  it  exudes.  The  resin  is  dipped  up 
from  time  to  time,  and  when  sufficient  is  collected, 
it  is  placed  in  a  copper  still  of  large  capacity. 
When  heated,  the  turpentine  is  distilled  off  with 
water  which  is  gradually  introduced  into  the  still 
to  regulate  the  temperature.  The  resulting  distil- 
late separates  into  two  layers,  the  lower  one  water 
on  which  the  turpentine  floats  as  the  upper  layer. 

Turpentine  has  drying  or  oxidizing  properties 
to  a  marked  extent,  and  for  this  reason,  is  an  excel- 
lent thinner  for  paints  and  varnishes.  On  account 
of  this  property  it  has  a  tendency  to  bleacn  or 
lighten  paint  or  varnish  as  it  dries,  whereas,  in 
using  benzine  for  the  same  purpose,  in  fact,  any 
of  the  lighter  mineral  spirits,  yellowness  is  sure  to 
follow  either  in  white  paint  or  varnish.  Turpen- 
tine is  used  in  all  the  better  grades  of  oil  varnishes, 
in  the  rubber  industries  and  recently  in  the  produc- 
tion of  camphor.  It  is  often  grossly  adulterated 
with  benzine,  kerosene,  coal-tar  naptha,  rosin 
spirit  and  similar  substitutes. 

The  specific  gravity  of  turpentine  is  0.864  to 
0.868.     By  taking  the   specific  gravity  you   can 

54 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

readily  discover  the  purity.  A  simple  test  is  to 
moisten  a  piece  of  white  paper  with  the  sample  to 
be  tested.  If  pure,  it  will  entirely  evaporate  and 
leave  no  residue,  while  if  kerosene,  mineral  oil,  or 
rosin  is  present,  an  oily  residue  remains. 

Let  a  small  quantity  evaporate  in  a  cup.  Ros- 
in oil  will  remain  as  a  sticky  deposit  and  when  ig- 
nited give  the  odor  of  rosin. 

Concentrate  by  partial  evaporation  a  small 
quantity  of  turpentine  and  note  the  odor  of  the 
concentrate.  If  petroleum  is  present,  it  can  be  de- 
tected in  this  way.  Fill  two  deep  glass  vessels, 
one  with  pure,  the  other  with  the  suspected  sample. 
Hold  the  vessels  over  a  piece  of  black  paper  and 
look  directly  down  into  the  liquid.  Petroleum  or 
benzine  is  indicated  by  a  blueish  yellow  bloom  or 
cloud. 

Shake  the  sample  in  a  small  bottle;  if  pure, 
the  bubbles  formed  should  at  once  disappear.  The 
specific  gravity  is  also  changed  by  adulteration. 

Ten  barrels  of  crude  turpentine  produce  two 
barrels  of  turpentine  spirits  and  six  barrels  of 
rosin.  Bear  in  mind  that  turpentine  assists  paint 
and  varnish  to  dry,  while  benzine  and  other  light 
mineral  oils,  having  no  oxidizing  properties,  cause 
paint  and  varnish  to  dry  more  slowly  and  tend  to 
produce  yellowness. 

The  residue  in  the  turpentine  still  is  common 
rosin  or  colophony ;  this  varies  in  color  from  trans- 

55 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

parent  white  to  almost  black.  The  first  season's 
crop  of  rosin  is  pale.  Each  succeeding  year  that 
the  trees  are  tapped  the  rosin  residue  becomes 
darker.  The  trees  seldom  admit  of  tapping  for 
more  than  four  or  five  successive  seasons. 

Careful  methods  in  the  process  of  distillation 
will  produce  a  lighter  rosin  than  otherwise,  in  par- 
ticular, if  pains  are  taken  not  to  push  the  distilla- 
tion too  far,  but  rather  to  allow  a  little  turpentine 
to  remain  behind  with  the  rosin. 

Rosin  is  graded  according  to  its  color.  The 
usual  brands  are : 

WW  Water  White 

WG Window  Glass 

N Very  Pale 

M Pale 

K Low  Pale 

I Extra  No.  1 

H Standard  or  No.  1 

F Extra,  No.  2 

E , Standard,  No.  2 

D — Extra  Strained 

C Dark  Strained 

B   Black  Strained 

A Black 

All  these  grades  are  strained,  freed  from  dirt 
and  impurities,  except  the  A  grade. 

BOSIN  OILS  are  produced  by  distilling  rosin. 

56 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Large  cast  iron  stills  are  used  for  this  purpose  and 
a  fair  grade  of  rosin  gives  the  best  results.  The 
addition  of  5  per  cent,  of  paraffine  oil  to  the  rosin 
to  be  treated  will  ensure  lighter  and  better  pro- 
ducts and  increase  the  yield  of  lightest  colored  oil. 

The  products  of  distillation  are,  first,  resin 
spirit  (pinolin)  which  can  be  used  as  a  solvent.  It 
closely  approaches  turpentine  in  its  general  char- 
acteristics save  that  the  resinous  or  slightly  tarry 
odor  is  present  unless  it  has  further  treatment  to 
deoderize  it.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  tur- 
pentine and  is  somewhat  cheaper. 

Second,  pale  rosin  oil,  or  so-called  first  run,  a 
light  colored  oil,  of  bluish  cast  and  moderate  body. 

Third,  blue  rosin  oil,  or  so-called  second  run, 
rather  dark  and  heavy. 

Fourth,  green  rosin  oil,  or  so-called  third  run. 

Fifth,  the  residue,  which  is  a  more  or  less  solid 
pitch,  suitable  for  iron  varnish,  shoemakers'  pitch 
and  like  purposes. 

Pale,  or  first  run  rosin  oil  is  most  suitable  for 
refining.  This  is  done  by  boiling  it  with  direct 
steam,  washing  with  hot  water  and  treatment  with 
soda  lye  and  further  boiling  and  washing. 

The  oil  is  bleached  and  further  deoderized  by 
heating  it  with  indirect  steam  and  passing  a  cur- 
rent of  warm  air  through  it  by  means  of  a  blower. 

The  resulting  product  is  an  oil  free  from  resins 

57 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

and  acid,  and  will  dry  without  cracking  or  sticki- 
ness. It  is,  therefore,  suitable  as  a  paint  oil  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and  lacquers. 

Refined  rosin  oil  is  also  used  in  printers'  ink, 
lubricating  oil  and  in  the  manufacture  of  preserva- 
tives, soap  and  medicinal  preparations. 

VENICE  TURPENTINE  is  an  oleo  resin  from  the 
European  larch  tree  and  resembles  very  closely  the 
crude  turpentine  of  our  southern  pine.  The  crude 
resinous  sap  is  prepared  for  use  by  simply  driving 
off  the  moisture  (water)  by  the  aid  of  heat  and 
straining.  In  this  form  it  is  found  on  the  market, 
of  pale  yellow  color,  transparent  and  about  the 
consistency  of  strained  honey.  The  odor  is  some- 
what the  same  as  turpentine.  Venice  turpentine, 
unlike  ordinary  turpentine  resin,  does  not  fluoresce 
or  turn  white.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  by  deco- 
rators in  sizes  to  give  elasticity  and  adhesiveness 
and,  likewise,  in  shellac  varnishes  to  counteract 
the  brittleness  of  that  gum;  also  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sticky  fly  paper. 

PETROLEUM  SPIRITS  are  the  lighter  products  ob- 
tained in  the  distillation  of  crude  petroleum  or  min- 
eral oil.  Similar  products  are  obtained  in  distil- 
ling bituminous  shales,  natural  asphaltums  and 
crude  gas  tar. 

When  crude  mineral  oil  is  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion, the  resulting  products  are,  first,  the  gasolines, 

58 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

as  they  boil  and  volatalize  at  low  temperatures. 
There  are  three  gravities  of  gasoline  in  common 
use.  The  lightest  is  so  extremely  volatile  as  to  be 
rather  unsafe.  It  is  used  to  enrich  gas  for  illumi- 
nating and  alone  in  gas  machines  and  also  as  a  sol- 
vent.   It  is  known  as  84  degree  gasoline. 

The  next  gasoline  is  commonly  called  stove  gas- 
oline, or  76  degree  gasoline  and  is  the  one  most  in 
use  in  gas  engines,  gas  stoves  for  domestic  pur- 
poses and  in  cleaning  and  renovating. 

The  so-caled  71  degree  gasoline  is  used  for  simi- 
lar purposes,  but  is  not  sufficiently  volatile,  espec- 
ially in  low  temperatures,  to  readily  gasify. 

After  distilling  off  the  gasolines,  the  benzines 
come  over.  The  one  best  known  and  generally  pro- 
curable is  styled  62  degree  benzine,  or  naptha, 
which  name  is  applied  to  gasolines  also.  This  is 
used  as  a  solvent  and  is  largely  substituted  for  tur- 
pentine in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and  in 
thinning  paint.  In  the  manufacture  of  turpentine 
substitutes,  this  product  is  largely  employed.  It 
can  be  made  almost  odorless  by  chemical  treatment 
and  redistillation. 

The  next  product  is  kerosene,  or  illuminating 
oil,  which  is  serviceable,  not  only  in  the  production 
of  light  and  heat,  but  is  used  to  a  limited  extent 
in  paints  and  varnishes  for  special  purposes.  A 
good  kerosene  oil  should  be  free  from  any  unpleas- 

59 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ant  or  marked  odor  and  should  not  flash  (take  fire) 
under  150  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

A  somewhat  heavier  oil  suitable  for  illumina- 
ting purposes  called  300  degree  or  solar  oil  is  used 
to  advantage  in  preparing  signal  oils. 

The  further  products  of  crude  oil  which  come 
over  at  higher  temperatures  or  remain  in  the  still 
as  residues  to  be  further  treated  are  paraffine  oils, 
the  heavier  lubricating  oils,  vaseline,  paraffine  wax 
and  a  dark  residue  used  as  a  coarse  lubricant  and 
in  cheap  heavy  axle  greases.  All  these  products 
from  the  crude  petroleum,  after  distillation,  are 
subjected  to  further  treatment  in  order  to  deodor- 
ize and  clarify  or  refine  them  suitably  for  the  pur- 
poses intended. 

Coal  tar  naptha  is  the  light  product  distilled 
from  coal  tar.  It  resembles  benzine,  but  has  a 
tarry  odor.  As  a  solvent  in  paints  and  varnishes, 
it  can  often  advantageously  replace  turpentine 
where  cheapness  is  an  object. 

GEAIN  ALCOHOL  is  produced  by  fermentation 
and  distillation  from  all  grains,  potatoes,  beet  root 
residues  and,  in  fact,  from  any  substance  contain- 
ing starch  or  sugar  in  appreciable  quantities. 

The  first  step  in  the  production  of  alcohol  from 
starchy  substances,  such  as  grain  or  potatoes,  is  to 
form  a  mash  with  water  and  allow  this  to  be  acted 
upon  by  malt.    The  diastase  in  the  malt  converts 

60 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

the  starch  into  sugar.  The  next  step  is  to  add 
yeast,  whereby  the  fermentation  produced  causes 
the  sugar  to  become  alcohol. 

The  alcohol  is  distilled  off,  together  with  some 
water  and  concentrated  by  further  distillation. 

In  a  general  way,  this  is  the  method  used  in  the 
production  of  all  spiritous  liquors.  Whiskey  and 
similar  spirits  contain  about  50  per  cent,  alcohol. 
Pure  alcohol,  spirits  of  wine  or  proof  spirit,  con- 
tains 95  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

Alcohol  and  other  liquors  require  purification 
after  being  distilled,  to  rid  them  of  fusel  oil,  which 
is  ill  smelling  and  very  poisonous. 

Amyl  Acetate  is  made  from  fusel  oil  and  finds 
useful  application  in  the  production  of  various  col- 
lodion varnishes,  lacquers  and  bronzing  liquids. 
Grain  alcohol  has  varied  uses.  To  the  painter,  it 
is  of  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  shellac  and 
spirit  varnishes,  stains,  etc. 

WOOD  ALCOHOL  is  obtained  in  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  wood.  When  wood  is  thus  treated  in  closed 
retorts,  the  products  yielded  are  acetic  acid,  tar 
and  wood  spirit. 

The  tar  readily  separates  from  the  watery 
liquid  containing  the  other  products. 

The  watery  liquid,  or  wood  vinegar  is  distilled. 
Crude  wood  spirit  first  passes  over  and  then  acetic 
acid.  The  crude  wood  spirit  is  further  purified 
by  rectification.    Wood  alcohol  is  suitable  for  all 

61 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

purposes  where  grain  alcohol  is  used  in  the  paint 
and  varnish  industries,  and  can  be  substituted  for 
it  with  advantage.  The  ordinary  spirit  is  95  per 
cent.  pure. 

Absolute  wood  alcohol  is  placed  on  the  market 
under  several  names  and  differs  from  the  ordinary- 
article  in  that,  the  little  remaining  water  has  been 
removed  and  the  spirit  deodorized.  The  only  real 
advantage  it  possesses  is  the  absence  of  odor  and 
the  fact  that  it  dissolves  resins  somewhat  quicker 
than  when  the  ordinary  spirit  is  used. 


62 


CHAPTER  VI. 

VARNISHES. 

The  term  varnish  is  used  to  designate  any  solu- 
tion, which,  when  spread  with  a  brush  in  a  thin  lay- 
er on  the  surface  of  an  object,  dries  with  a  smooth, 
lustrous,  transparent  film. 

The  principal  ingredients  used  are  gum  resins, 
linseed  oil,  turpentine,  benzine  and  suitable  dryers 
for  oil  varnishes ;  and  gums,  resins  and  alcohol  for 
spirit  varnishes;  the  latter,  as  a  rule,  are  simple 
solutions  of  gum  in  spirits,  and  while  quick  drying 
and  of  fair  utility,  are  necessarily  brittle  and  not 
able  to  stand  wear  and  tear. 

When  gums  or  resins  are  dissolved  by  the  aid 
of  heat  with  the  addition  of  prepared  or  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  and  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine 
to  the  proper  consistency,  we  have,  in  a  general 
way,  defined  oil  varnishes,  which,  because  of  the 
oil  entering  into  their  composition,  have  added 
elasticity  and  increased  durability  over  spirit  var- 
nishes. 

63 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Two  essentials  are  needed  to  produce  good  var- 
nishes ;  suitable  materials  of  good  quality  and  skill 
in  making,  to  adapt  the  varnish  to  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended. 

The  gums  or  resins  in  common  use  are  known 
as  Zanzibar,  angola,  sierra  leone^  benguela,  kauri, 
manilla,  damar,  (both  Batavian  and  Singapore) 
shellac  and  rosin. 

Zanzibar,  kauri,  and  manilla  copals  enter  into 
the  great  bulk  of  the  oil  varnishes,  except  the 
cheaper  grades  which  are  made  from  rosin. 

Zanzibar  and  other  copal  gums,  as  well  as  kau- 
ri are  fossil  or  semi-fossil  resins,  which  had  their 
origin  in  resin  producing  trees  long  extinct.  These 
gums,  having  been  in  the  ground,  hardened  in  the 
course  of  time.  The  same  gums  are  still  being 
produced  from  similar  species  of  trees  in  the  vari- 
ous localities  from  whence  the  fossil  varieties  are 
obtained. 

Manilla  copals  come  from  several  species  of 
trees  growing  in  the  Philippines,  the  principal 
source  being  from  the  Bread  tree.  Varieties  are 
also  met  with  in  Mexico  and  Brazil.  This  gum 
resin  is  soft,  in  fact  few  degrees  removed  from  or- 
dinary rosin  save  from  the  fact  that  it  has  some 
elasticity. 

Batavia  and  Singapore  demars  are  soft  gums, 
used  mainly  because  of  their  transparency  and  ab- 
sence of  color.     The  first  is  from  the  East  Indies 

64 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

and  the  Pkillipines,  produced  by  the  Amboyna 
pine  tree,  while  Singapore  demar  comes  from  a 
somewhat  different  species  of  tree  which  grows 
in  British  India  and  the  islands  before  mentioned. 

Shellac  comes  from  southern  Asia  and  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  produced  by  an  insect  which  lives  on 
several  varieties  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

These  insects  puncture  the  trees  and  are  cov- 
ered by  the  exuding  juices.  The  formation  due  to 
these  burrowings  is  reddish  brown  in  color  and 
consists  of  coloring  matter,  wax  and  resin.  This  is 
crude  shellac.  The  best  qualities  are  those  collect- 
ed before  the  insects  have  escaped  from  their  envel- 
opment. The  crude  product  is  termed  stick  lac, 
being  the  crude  shellac  adhering  to  the  twigs  and 
branches  on  which  it  is  formed. 

The  product  is  ground,  cleaned  and  treated  with 
weak  caustic  soda  and  then  with  alum  which  re- 
moves some  of  the  coloring  matter.  It  is  then 
dried,  melted,  run  into  heated  flat  moulds,  taken 
from  thence  hot,  and  spread  over  a  hollow  cylinder 
filled  with  warm  water.  The  layer  formed  is 
smoothed,  detached  and  dried  in  an  airy  place.  It 
is  a  very  brittle  substance,  softens  with  heat,  and 
is  inflammable.  It  is  partially  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  fully  so  in  alkalies  and  borax  solutions.  Shel- 
lac is  marketed  as  stick  lac,  which  is  the  crude 
shellac  adhering  to  the  twigs  on  which  it  was 
formed,  button  lac  or  melted  shellac,  free  from 

65 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

woody  fibre  and  other  foreign  matter,  and  the  vari- 
ous grades  of  refined  shellac.  Of  the  latter,  there 
are  two  principal  divisions;  the  so-called  native 
shellacs,  prepared  by  crude  methods,  and  charac- 
terized by  their  dark  color  and  slight  impurity,  and 
the  carefully  treated  shellacs  graded  according  to 
quality  under  various  brands  ranging  in  color 
from  pale  orange  to  light  brown.  White,  or 
bleached  shellac  is  made  by  several  processes.  In 
a  general  way  the  treatment  is  as  follows :  The  shel- 
lac is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda 
or  other  alkali,  a  certain  proportion  of  chloride  of 
lime  is  added,  and,  after  standing  a  day  or  two,  the 
gum  is  precipitated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  washed 
and  dried. 

Shellac  is  used  largely  in  spirit  varnishes  and 
in  the  preparation  of  shellac  japans.  It  is  used 
for  various  purposes  in  the  arts  also. 

Asphaltum,  the  base  of  most  black  varnishes, 
is  a  black  pitch-like  substance,  found  as  a  natural 
deposit  in  many  localities  throughout  the  world. 
It  varies  much  in  hardness,  color  and  elasticity. 
A  pitch  of  similar  nature  is  left  as  a  residue  in  the 
distillation  of  coal  tar  and  from  some  kinds  of 
crude  petroleum.  The  hard  asphaltums,  because 
of  their  brittleness,  make  less  durable  varnishes 
unless  a  sufficient  amount  of  linseed  oil  is  added. 

Certain  cheap  black  varnishes  are  made  by  sim- 
ply melting  cheap  grades  of  asphaltum  and  reduc- 

66 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Fobmulae. 

ing  the  product  with  benzine.  During  the  process 
of  melting  some  black  manganese  is  added  as  a 
dryer. 

Rosin  is  produced  as  before  mentioned,  in  the 
manufacture  of  turpentine. 

Two  other  gums  are  used  in  spirit  varnishes; 
mastic  and  sandarac.  The  best  quality  of  mas- 
tic is  produced  by  a  tree  of  the  cashew-nut  order, 
growing  in  the  islands  of  Greece.  The  rosin  ex- 
udes from  the  bark  where  cut,  in  the  form  of  tears. 
It  has  a  pale  yellow  color  and  is  brittle  and  fragile. 

Sandarac  is  a  pale  yellow  resin,  produced  by  a 
conifer  growing  in  Algiers.  It  is  soft  and  brittle, 
somewhat  like  mastic.  These  gum  resins  are  used 
in  certain  lacquers,  but  mainly  in  spirit  varnishes 
prepared  and  used  by  artists. 

The  better  grades  of  varnishes  are  made  almost 
wholly  from  Zanzibar  and  kauri  gums,  because  of 
the  hardness  and  durability  of  these  resins.  While 
not  so  hard  as  some  others,  kauri  gum  in  particu- 
lar, is  easily  worked  and  free  from  the  objections 
found  in  many  others. 

Carriage  varnishes,  exterior  finishes  and  the 
better  interior  varnishes  contain  these  gums.  Man- 
illa copals  are  used  mainly  in  the  medium  and 
cheaper  grades  for  interior  use.  Damar  varnish 
is  usually  a  simple  solution  of  the  resin  in  turpen- 
tine or  benzine  prepared  with  or  without  the  aid  of 
heat.     The  cheaper  grades  of  demar  varnish  are 

67 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

largely  adulterated  with  white  rosin  which  is  easily- 
dissolved  in  the  same  solvents. 

The  very  cheap  varnishes  are  made  from  com- 
mon rosin  treated  in  various  ways,  with  the  idea 
of  hardening  the  rosin  and  rendering  it,  if  possible, 
less  liable  to  the  action  of  dampness  or  moisture 
which  causes  rosin  to  fluoresce  or  turn  white.  The 
extreme  brittleness  of  rosin  and  its  likelihood  to 
soften  at  a  lower  temperature  than  most  other 
gums,  compels  special  hardening  treatment  to  be 
resorted  to.  Some  very  fair  interior  varnishes  are 
now  produced  from  rosin  by  processes  too  lengthy 
to  describe  here.  There  are  a  multitude  of  brands 
of  varnishes  adapted  to  various  and  special  re- 
quirements in  the  arts.  We  shall  only  consider  the 
ones  of  immediate  interest  to  the  painter. 

The  brands,  names  and  kinds  of  varnishes  for 
carriage  and  exterior  and  interior  house  work  are 
legion,  yet  they  admit  of  simple  classification  and 
in  many  cases,  differ  only  in  name  and  price.  In 
the  first  class  are  varnishes  containing  from  20  to 
30  gallons  of  linseed  oil  to  the  100  pounds  of  gum. 
This  includes  the  wearing  bodies  and  all  carriage 
and  other  exterior  finishing  varnishes:  the  so- 
called  spars,  marine  and  the  better  grades  of  in- 
side finishing.  They  are  made  from  Zanzibar, 
kauri,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two  in  varying  propor- 
tions. In  a  general  way,  therefore,  any  good 
grade  exterior  finishing  is  adaptable  to  practically 

68 


Paint  and  Varnish  Pacts  and  Formulae. 

all  the  uses  for  which  the  hundreds  of  outside  fin- 
ishings under  many  and  divers  names  are  recom- 
mended. 

Interior  finishes  are  usually  made  from  lower 
grades  of  kauri,  manila,  and  some  rosin,  with 
somewhat  less  oil.  You,  therefore,  never  go  wrong 
in  doing  inside  finishing  on  woodwork  with  a  spar 
or  exterior  varnish,  unless  rubbed  work  is  required. 
Hard  oil  finishes,  interior  coach,  number  one  fur- 
niture, number  one  coach,  and  similar  varnishes 
are  made  from  low  priced  gum  and  rosin,  with 
from  6  to  10  gallons  of  oil  to  the  100  pounds  of  gum, 
and  the  thinner  used  is  apt  to  be  in  part,  at  least, 
if  not  wholly,  benzine,  for  the  price  at  which  these 
varnishes  are  sold  does  not  admit  of  anything  else. 
These  cheaper  grades  of  varnish  yellow  with  age, 
because  of  the  benzine  they  contain,  and  turn  white 
and  perish  easily,  because  of  the  small  amount  of 
oil  and  the  nature  of  the  gum  used. 

Under  short  oil  varnishes  are  classed  all  rub- 
bing varnishes,  whether  for  carriage,  furniture,  or 
house  use.  The  best  grades  contain  gums  similar 
to  those  used  in  the  exterior  finishes  and  from  6  to 
10  gallons  of  oil  to  the  100  pounds  of  gum.  The 
cheaper  grades  of  rubbing  contain  cheaper  gums, 
and  some  rosin.  Floor  varnish  is  a  compromise 
between  a  short  oil,  hard  drying  varnish,  and  a 
varnish  of  the  so-called  long  oil  variety.  It  must 
have  hardness  and  elasticity  combined. 

69 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Cheap  hard  oils,  furnitures,  copals,  ceiling,  and 
sizing  varnishes  are  made  mostly  from  rosin  or 
very  low  grade  manila  and  rosin  mixtures,  thinned 
with  cheap  solvents.  Some  of  these  cheap  var- 
nishes are  very  good  for  the  purposes  intended, 
as  the  art  of  producing  good  cheap  varnishes  has 
been  made  a  special  study.  The  trouble  is  that  the 
purchaser  usually  expects  too  much  from  cheap 
varnishes  and  is,  therefor,  disappointed. 

What  does  it  cost  to  make  an  ordinary  gum  var- 
nnish  ? 

100  pounds  of  ordinary  kauri  gum,  at  32c.  $32  00 
10  gallons  prepared  linseed  oil,  at  60c. ...  6  00 
25  gallons  turpentine,  at  60c 15  00 

$53  00 
The  yield  would  be  from  35  to  38  gallons  and 
the  cost  of  the  raw  materials  entering  into  each 
gallon  of  varnish  approximately,  $1.40  per  gallon, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  cost  of  manufacture 
and  the  dozen  and  one  other  items  of  expense  which 
the  manufacturer  must  bear.  Manilla  varnishes 
can  be  made  somewhat  cheaper.  The  bare  cost  of 
material  in  the  making  of  a  cheap  pure  gum  var- 
nish can  hardly  be  brought  under  one  dollar  per 
gallon. 

The  linseed  oil  used  in  oil  varnishes  is  boiled 
with  the  addition  of  certain  so-called  dryers,  of 
which  red  lead  and  certain  compounds  of  manga- 

70 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

nese  treated  in  various  ways  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  drier  is  introduced  into  the  oil,  either 
direct  or  through  the  medium  of  the  resinates  or 
oleates  of  lead  and  manganese. 

Liquid  dryers  are  made  by  heating  together 
some  compound  of  lead  or  manganese  with  linseed 
oil  or  rosin  and  thinning  the  mixture  after  proper 
treatment  with  turpentine  or  benzine,  to  what  is 
considered  proper  strength  to  be  put  on  the  market. 
They  owe  their  drying  power  to  the  fact  that  salts 
of  lead  and  manganese  have  the  property  of  com- 
bining with  oils  and  resins  to  form  oleates  and 
resinates  of  these  metals,  lead  and  manganese. 
These  oleates  and  resinates  are  soluble  in  oil,  tur- 
pentine and  benzine  and  impart  the  drying  prop- 
erties to  the  oil  in  the  paint  into  which  they  are  in- 
troduced. They  hasten  the  oxidation  or  drying  of 
linseed  oil  by  acting  as  carriers  of  oxygen  from  the 
air  to  the  oil. 

Linseed  oil  gains  from  14  to  16  per  cent,  in 
weight  in  drying,  due  to  the  oxygen  it  absorbs. 

Japan  dryer  and  other  heavy  bodied  siccatives 
are  made  in  the  same  general  way  as  liquid  dryers 
and  owe  their  body  to  the  addition  of  gum  resin  or 
shellac  and  the  use  of  less  reducer. 

In  the  fabrication  of  oil  varnish,  the  gum  resin 
to  be  used  is  carefully  sorted  and  a  definite  amount, 
usually  100  to  150  pounds,  styled  a  "batch,"  placed 
in  a  large  kettle,  preferably  of  copper.    The  ca- 

71 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

pacity  of  such  a  kettle  is  usually  from  75  to  125  gal- 
lons. The  kettle  of  gum  is  placed  over  a  hot  fire 
of  coke  and  the  gum  carefully  melted,  either  with 
or  without  covering  the  top  of  the  kettle.  A-Vhen 
no  cover  is  used,  it  is  styled  an  open  melt ;  when  the 
gum  has  properly  melted,  prepared  linseed  oil  is 
added  and  the  mixture  further  heated  and  stirred 
and  dryer  added  if  necessary.  The  kettle  is  then 
drawn  from  the  fire,  allowed  to  cool  sufficiently  and 
then  turpentine  or  benzine  is  added  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  give  a  proper  varnish  body  to  the  mix- 
ture when  cool.  The  varnish  is  then  carefully  fil- 
tered and  tanked  for  sometime,  as  ageing  material- 
ly improves  oil  varnishes. 

Cheap  varnishes  are  simply  filtered  and  are 
then  ready  for  the  market. 

Many  special  processes  have  been  introduced, 
and  particular  methods  of  procedure,  but  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  the  foregoing  gives  the  processes  in  com- 
mon use. 

To  test  the  quality  of  liquid  and  Japan  dryers 
it  is  only  necessary  to  add  the  dryer  to  pure,  raw 
linseed  oil  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  dryer 
to  ten  parts  of  oil.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  spread  in 
a  thin  film  on  glass  and  allow  the  film  to  dry,  ob- 
serving the  length  of  time  required  to  cause  the  oil 
to  become  tacky,  dust  free  and  dry. 

A  good  dryer  should  dry  twenty  parts  of  oil 
in  12  to  24  hours  at  the  longest.     Other  features  of 

72 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

the  dryer  can  be  observed  also.  The  dryer  should 
mix  readily  with  the  oil,  otherwise  if  it  separates 
and  is  insoluble,  it  can  be  put  aside  as  of  little 
value.  The  behavior  in  drying  should  also  be 
noted.  The  film  of  oil  should  dry  smooth  and  free 
from  crinkles  and  striae  or  other  imperfections. 
Comparisons  between  different  dryers  can  be  made 
easily  by  this  method  of  adding  fixed,  accurately 
measured  proportions  of  dryer  to  raw  oil  and  ob- 
serving the  action  of  the  mixtures  side  by  side.  A 
fluid  ounce  of  liquid  contains  480  drops.  24  drops 
of  dryer  to  the  ounce  of  raw  linseed  oil  would  be 
about  1  part  to  20. 

Varnishes  can  be  tested  by  spreading  them  on 
glass  and  observing  their  action  in  drying  and  the 
nature  of  the  surfaces  they  produce.  Exposure 
to  steam  and  the  weather  will  develop  their  wear- 
iDg  qualities  or  lack  of  them. 


73 


CHAPTER  VII. 
READY  MIXED  PAINTS.  KALSOMINES,  ETC. 

The  use  of  ready  mixed  paints  seems  to  be  a 
thorn  in  the  side  of  the  average  painter,  and  in 
some  cases  with  reason.  The  market  has  been 
flooded  with  miserable,  grossly  cheapened  and 
adulterated  mixtures  which,  at  one  time,  well  nigh 
ruined  that  branch  of  the  business,  and  prejudiced 
many,  for  all  time,  against  their  use.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  good  brands  are  on  the  market,  which 
give  excellent  satisfaction,  cover  fairly  well  and 
are  durable.  They  are  carefully  and  scientifically 
prepared  and  have  many  of  the  merits  claimed  for 
them.  None  cover,  mask  so  well  as  straight  white 
lead  and  oil,  because  they  contain,  in  practically 
all  cases,  50  per  cent,  or  more  of  other  pigments 
than  white  lead ;  notably,  oxide  of  zinc.  These  pig- 
ments do  not  have  the  opacity,  or  what  the  painter 
calls  covering  power,  of  white  lead.  The  intro- 
duction of  over  50  per  cent,  of  white  lead  in  a  ready 
mixed  paint  would  cause  the  pigment  to  settle  or 
"bake"  in  the  bottom  of  the  can  and  interfere  with 

74 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

the  slight  emulsification  of  the  oil  which  aids  in 
holding  the  pigment  in  suspension  and  making  a 
good  paint  solution.  The  fact  that  zinc  and  other 
bases  are  used  with  white  lead  explains  why  ready 
mixed  paints  do  not  chalk  so  readily,  being  in  this 
sense,  more  durable  than  white  lead  and  oil.  The 
cheaper  ready  mixed  paints  and  most  so-called  best 
grades  contain  whiting,  paris  white,  silica,  litho- 
phone,  or  barytes  in  various  proportions,  in  addi- 
tion to  lead  and  zinc.  They  cover  poorly  and  while 
the  pigments  used  may  not  seriously  affect  the 
wearing  qualities,  except  to  cause  cracking  or  peel- 
ing of  the  paint,  yet  the  emulsion  of  oil  and  water 
is  overdone  to  such  an  extent  as  to  largely  kill  the 
binding  quality  of  the  oil,  and  just  here  is  the  seri- 
ous fault  in  these  cheap  grades. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  ordinary  shades,  a 
white  base,  composed  of  one  or  more  of  the  pig- 
ments before  mentioned,  is  ground  and  to  this  is 
added  raw  linseed  oil,  turpentine  or  benzine,  dryer, 
tinting  color,  and  usually,  more  or  less  solution  to 
hold  up  the  pigments  properly.  The  following 
would  be  a  good  example  of  a  first  grade  paint : 

White  lead   150  lbs. 

White   zinc    150     " 

Eaw  oil 20  gallons 

Dryer 2       " 

Turpentine   2      " 

Solution  2      " 

75 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Such  a  paint  would  cost  for  material,  labor, 
packages,  etc.,  over  one  dollar  per  gallon. 

In  a  cheap  paint,  zinc  and  barytes  would  be  the 
pigments  and  a  larger  percentage  of  solution  and 
benzine.  If  you  wish  to  make  a  cheap  paint  your- 
self, there  is  no  reason  why  it  can  not  be  done  by 
extending  the  oil  with  some  solution  which  will 
combine  and  form  an  emulsion  with  it.  The  use 
of  such  paint  is  justified  on  cheap  work,  particular- 
ly interiors.  Such  solutions  can  be  made  as  the 
following : 

Dissolve  1-4  pound  of  the  best  glue,  gelatine 
preferred,  in  sufficient  hot  water.  Dissolve  2 
pounds  of  sugar  of  lead  in  water  and  add  these  two 
solutions  to  enough  water  to  make  12  gallons. 

Another  solution  is  made  with  5  ozs.  of  silicate 
of  soda ;  2  ozs.  of  carbonate  of  soda ;  and  2  ozs.  of 
borax  in  2  gallons  of  water.  Mix  this  solution 
with  raw  linseed  oil  to  any  proportion  desired,  or 
mix  in  pure  linseed  oil  paint.  This  solution  is  best 
adapted  to  paints  in  which  the  pigments  are  neu- 
tral or  the  iron  oxides  such  as  ochre,  Venetian  red, 
metallic  brown,  etc. 

Some  of  the  poorer  or  cheaper  grades  of  ready 
mixed  paints  and  metallics  used  for  barn  and  roof 
work  contain  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  of  solutions 
of  the  above  nature. 

Some  few  of  the  best  ready  for  use  paints  now 
on  the  market  are  free  from  solutions  or  practical- 
ly, so. 

76 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

KALSOMINES  and  cold  water  paints  are  of  in- 
terest to  the  painter,  even  though  he  may  still  pre- 
pare his  own  with  whiting,  glue  and  hot  water. 

The  ready  made  hot  water  kalsomines  are  simi- 
lar in  composition,  in  dry  form,  except  that  vege- 
table albumen  replaces  the  glue  in  some  cases. 
Terra  alba  or  some  other  white  may,  in  part,  re- 
place the  whiting.  The  cold  water  varieties  are  of 
the  same  nature,  except  that  the  glue  is  rendered 
soluble  in  cold  water,  or  they  may  be  composed  in 
the  main  of  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  paris,  with  some 
additional  binder  added. 

The  exterior  cold  water  paints,  in  fact,  prac- 
tically all  of  these  preparations  which  are  war- 
ranted to  withstand  moisture,  owe  that  property 
to  caseine  and  lime.  The  base  is  whiting  or  some 
similar  white  with  from  8  to  10  pounds  of  caseine, 
and  about  an  equal  amount  of  lime  thoroughly 
mixed  with  each  100  pounds  of  base. 

The  lime  is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  caseine  in 
water,  and  on  drying,  the  compound  forms  a  bind- 
er which  is  insoluble  and  hence,  resists  moisture. 
Other  alkaline  salts  can  be  used  in  place  of  lime. 

Caseine  is  a  glue  like  substance  made  from  milk 
curds,  free  from  grease.  It  makes  a  splendid  wall 
size,  but  the  price  is  more  than  that  of  good  glue. 
In  order  to  mix  it  for  use  as  said  before,  the  addi- 
tion of  an  alkaline  salt,  such  as  ammonia,  sal  soda, 
or  lime  is  necessary  to  make  the  solution. 

77 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

GLUE  AND  GELATINE  is  the  animal  matter  con- 
tained in  bones,  sinews,  hide  and  similar  substan- 
ces, of  animal  origin.  It  is  procured  by  boiling 
out  the  glue  forming  substances  with  the  aid  of 
water,  or  by  dissolving,  in  the  case  of  bone,  the 
mineral  matter  with  acid  and  further  dissolving 
the  residual  gluey  matter.  These  watery  solutions 
of  glue  are  evaporated  to  free  the  glue  from  mois- 
ture, as  far  as  possible,  without  injury.  The  con- 
centrated solution  is  run  into  moulds,  cooled,  cut 
into  thin  strips  and  dried.  The  cheap  glue  ground 
and  in  flake  form  is  bone  and  offal  glue  made  by 
simply  boiling  with  water  to  dissolve  out  the  glue, 
with  the  final  treatment  before  mentioned.  Such 
glues  have,  usually,  very  little  strength.  The 
stronger  glues  and  gelatines  are  those  made  from 
hide,  or  gelatine  glue  made  from  bone  by  the  acid 
dissolving  process. 

For  any  purpose  whatever,  good  glue  or  gela- 
tine should  be  used,  for,  while  cheap  glue  will  some- 
times scarcely  geletanize  in  10  parts  of  water,  good 
glues  may  geletanize  in  30  to  50  parts  of  water. 
The  white,  or  opaque  glues  owe  their  color  to  the 
introduction  of  zinc,  barytes,  or  some  like  sub- 
stance to  whiten  them.  They  rather  detract,  than 
add  to  the  value. 

Isinglass  is  that  form  of  gelatine  made  from 
fish  bladders. 

78 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

BRONZES  are  made  from  the  powders  resulting 
from  the  forging  metals,  mainly  copper,  iron,  zinc, 
and  tin.  The  powdered  metal  in  the  course  of 
preparation  is  ground  and  heated  with  a  little 
oil,  grease,  wax,  or  paraffine,  and  the  resulting 
superficial  oxidation  produces  the  bronze.  Some 
bronzes  are  also  made  by  a  solution  and  precipita- 
tion of  the  metal  in  a  finely  divided  state.  Bronze 
powders  are  largely  imported  from  Germany  and 
England.  Of  gold  bronze,  there  are  but  three  vari- 
eties of  consequence,  but  sold  under  a  variety  of 
names,  and  prices  to  correspond.  Radiator,  or 
cheap  bronze,  a  medium  grade,  and  leaf  bronze. 
The  better  bronzes  are  usually  more  finely  pow- 
dered and  should  be  more  brilliant.  Bronze  is 
judged  by  its  color,  lustre  and  fineness.  For  fres- 
co work,  brilliancy  is  the  all-important  feature,  and 
may  be  present  to  a  more  marked  degree  in  a  cheap 
bronze,  than  in  a  better  grade.  Aluminum  bronze 
has  largely  taken  the  place  .of  the  so-called  silver 
bronze,  as  aluminum  is  less  apt  to  tarnish  than  the 
metals  used  in  making  the  ordinary  silver. 

GUMS.— The  so-called  gums  used  in  varnish 
making  are  in  reality  resins  in  contra  distinction  to 
the  true  gums.  Resins  are  but  slightly,  if  at  all, 
soluble  in  water,  while  the  true  gums  are  fully  solu- 
ble in  that  substance. 

Gum  Arabic  and  dextrine  are  the  most  impor- 

79 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

tant  outside  of  starch  and  flour,  which,  when  boiled, 
present  the  gummy  nature  also. 

Gum  Arabic  is  a  product  of  the  Acacia,  growing 
in  some  parts  of  southern  Asia,  the  East  Indies 
and  northern  Africa.  It  is  a  white,  or  light  yellow, 
transparent  gum,  soluble  in  hot  water.  A  stan- 
dard solution  consists  of  1  oz.  gum  Arabic,  dis- 
solved in  2  ozs.  of  boiling  water. 

Dextrine,  or  British  Gum  is  prepared  from 
starch  by  treatment  with  acid  and  heat.  It  is  less 
adhesive  than  gum  Arabic. 

Starch  is  made  from  grain,  potatoes  and  some 
bulbous  roots,  mainly,  however,  from  corn  and  po- 
tatoes. To  make  starch  solution,  the  best  plan  is 
to  mix  the  starch  in  powdered  form  in  enough  cold 
water  to  make  a  cream  like  paste  and  add  this  mix- 
ture slowly  to  boiling  water  of  sufficient  quantity 
to  make  a  jelly-like  mass,  which  can  be  thinned  as 
desired. 

WAXES — The  principal  waxes  of  interest  to  the 
painter  are  bees'  wax,  carnauba,  ceresin  and  par- 
affine. 

Bees  Wax  is  the  best  known.  The  crude  wax 
is  frequently  bleached  for  use  where  whiteness  is 
an  object,  by  spreading  it  in  thin  layers  and  sub- 
jecting it  to  the  action  of  sunlight.  The  melting 
point  varies  with  the  hardness  of  the  wax.  The 
average  being  about  140  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

80 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Carnauba  Wax  occurs  in  thin  films  on  the  leaves 
of  a  palm  growing  abundantly  in  Brazil.  It  is 
hard,  somewhat  brittle,  and  melts  at  183  degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Ceresin  is  a  form  of  paraffine  wax  resulting 
from  the  purification  of  ozokerite  or  mineral  wax 
found  in  nature. 

Paraffine  wax  is  obtained  from  tar  in  the  des- 
tructive distillation  of  wood,  coal  and  other  bitumi- 
nous formations  and  from  crude  petroleum.  Very 
few  chemicals  have  any  action  on  it,  as  it  contains 
several  of  the  least  alterable  organic  compounds. 
It  is,  therefore,  superior  to  bees-wax  or  any  vegeta- 
ble wax  for  this  reason.  Its  melting  point  varies 
from  86  degrees  Fahrenheit  to  176  degrees  Fah- 
renheit, or  thereabouts.  The  higher  the  melting 
point,  the  harder  and  denser  is  the  wax.  Waxes 
are  soluble  in  turpentine,  benzine  and  oils. 

SMA  jJ:  was  originally  glass  and  other  vitreous 
mixtures  containing  oxide  of  cobalt.  As  found  in 
the  market  at  the  present  time,  it  is  composed  of 
coarse  silica,  or  some  silicious  substance,  which 
has  been  stained  with  pigments  of  various  colors, 
mixed  in  a  suitable  medium,  or  by  the  use  of  ana- 
line. 


81 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

VARNISH  AND  PAINT  TROUBLES  AND  THEIR 
REMEDIES. 

It  is  of  importance  to  observe  the  action  of  a 
drying  oil,  of  which  linseed  oil  is  the  most  used,  and 
can  be  taken  as  the  best  example. 

It  is  seldom  used  alone,  but  mixed  with  resins 
as  varnish,  or  with  pigments  to  form  paint.  These 
mixtures,  varnish  and  paint,  are  applied  to  a  vari- 
ety of  surfaces,  such  as  wood,  metal,  plaster  and 
stone,  substances  differing  materially  in  their  phy- 
sical characteristics. 

While,  of  course,  the  decorative  effect  of  var- 
nish and  paint  is  of  great  moment,  the  protective 
effect,  in  most  cases,  is  the  important  feature,  as 
the  action  of  rain,  moisture,  heat  and  air,  cause 
wood  to  discolor  and  become  fibrous,  or  rot  and 
mould.  Unpainted  metal,  exposed  to  atmospheric 
conditions  will  rapidly  rust  or  oxidize,  particularly 
iron.  The  surface  rust  holds  the  moisture  and  the 
iron  is  rapidly  corroded  until  it  may  be,  in  great 
measure,  destroyed. 

82 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Plaster  is  very  absorbent  and  quickly  takes  up 
moisture  and  though  it  will  dry  again,  the  numer- 
ous changes  causes  it  to  scale  or  disintegrate  and 
thus  be  destroyed. 

Stone  surfaces,  in  some  cases,  through  similar 
agencies,  will  scale  or  discolor  and  become  unsight- 
ly. A  layer  of  oil  paint  applied  to  these  surfaces, 
by  protecting  them  from  external  influences,  will 
prevent  all  this  in  great  measure,  while  the  coating 
remains  in  good  condition  as  a  protective  covering. 
With  absorbent  substances,  such  as  wood  and 
plaster,  added  protection  is  given  in  that  some  of 
the  paint  is  absorbed  by  the  pores,  and  becomes  a 
part  of  the  substance  to  which  the  paint  is  applied. 

Now,  what  is  the  influence  of  atmospheric  and 
other  external  agents  on  the  protective  coating  of 
drying  oil  itself?  In  the  first  place,  the  drying 
oil,  whether  in  varnish  or  paint,  gradually  hardens 
by  the  absorbtion  of  oxygen  from  the  air  and  the 
action  of  heat,  whether  from  the  sun's  rays  or  other 
sources,  until  at  length,  the  coating  loses  its  bind- 
ing qualities,  and  the  varnish  or  paint  disintegrates 
and  perishes. 

The  duration  of  the  life  of  the  coating  will  de- 
pend on  the  quality  of  the  drying  oil  and  the  action 
or  non-action  of  the  resins  or  pigments  with  which 
it  is  combined,  also  by  the  proportion  of  oil  used. 
The  greater  the  proportion  of  oil,  the  more  lasting 
the  coating  will  be. 

83 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Metals,  being  non-porous,  and  having  the  paint 
entirely  on  the  surface,  the  coating  is  shorter  lived 
than  on  more  porous  substances. 

Of  the  other  agencies  which  work  destruction 
to  the  oil  may  be  mentioned  rain,  fog,  and  snow, 
air  currents,  dust,  dirt,  or  sand,  smoke  gases  and 
the  nature  of  the  pigment  used.  The  practical  life 
of  paint  on  metal  work  exposed  to  the  elements  is 
scarcely  more  than  two  years,  while  on  wood  or 
plaster,  five  years  is  the  most  that  can  be  reason- 
ably expected.  The  action  of  rain,  snow,  and  fog, 
aided  by  wind  currents,  can  be  readily  understood 
by  observing  the  side  of  a  house  which  is  exposed 
to  the  quarter  from  which  prevailing  storms  come. 

Wind  will  also  drive  dust  and  sand  with  more 
or  less  force  against  the  protected  surfaces  and  the 
mechanical  action  of  such  substances  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  the  sand  blast,  though,  of  course, 
far  less  severe. 

The  action  of  smoke  gases,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned before,  is  of  a  chemical  nature,  due  to  the 
formation  of  sulphurous  acid  from  the  chemical 
action  of  the  gases,  and  steam,  which  rapidly  at- 
tacks the  oil  binder.  The  action  of  certain  pig- 
ments on  the  oil  is  very  marked  and  has  been  pre- 
viously referred  to. 

Red  lead  forms  a  hard  solid  coating  when  com- 
bined with  drying  oil,  due  to  chemical  action  of  the 
pigment  in  causing  a  more  rapid  oxidation,  or  dry- 

84 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ing  of  the  oil  and  the  added  fact,  that  in  such  paint, 
less  oil  is  used  than  for  most  other  pigments.  Oil 
is  the  life  of  the  varnish  or  paint. 

The  pigments  in  ordinary  use  require  the  fol- 
lowing proportion  of  oil  to  form  a  substantial  paste 
of  about  equal  consistency  before  thinning : 

White  lead, 8  to  10  per  cent. 

Red  lead, 6  to  8  per  cent. 

Oxide  of  zinc, 15  to  20  per  cent. 

Barytes,  8  per  cent. 

Chalk, 20  per  cent. 

Chrome  green, 10  to  12  per  cent. 

Oxide  of  iron, 10  to  12  per  cent. 

Umbers,  . . . 20  to  30  per  cent. 

Ochres, 15  to  25  per  cent. 

Siennas, .30  to  40  per  cent. 

Chrome  Yellows, ...  12  to  18  per  cent. 

These  proportions  vary  some,  however,  as  pig- 
ments of  the  same  nature  differ  considerably. 
Crystalline  pigments  in  general,  take  less  oil  than 
those  of  a  clayey  nature.  Dried  paint  will  be  quick- 
ly destroyed  by  all  alkaline  solutions,  such  as  pot- 
ash, soda,  or  ammonia;  acids  will  also  destroy 
paint,  especially  those  which  fume  or  give  off 
vapor.  Heat  is  a  destroyer  of  paint  or  varnish. 
The  higher  the  temperature,  the  more  rapid  the 
action.     The  protective  film  becomes  rapidly  hard 

85 


Paint  and  Yaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

and  brittle,  loses  all  elasticity  and  pliability  and 
when  changes  in  temperature  occur,  causing  expan- 
sion, or  contraction  of  the  substance  coated,  the 
covering,  no  longer  elastic,  cracks  and  scales. 
Thus,  we  account  for  much  cracking  on  old  painted 
woodwork  and  iron. 

Heat  also  yellows  white  paint  and  darkens  light 
shades,  as  it  causes  the  oil  to  yellow  or  darken. 

We  have  noted,  in  general,  the  destructive  agen- 
cies to  which  varnish  and  paint  is  subjected.  Let 
us  observe  the  specific  troubles  met  with,  first  in 
varnish,  and  then  paint  in  its  order;  considering 
the  necessary  requirements  to  form  varnish  and 
paint  of  a  satisfactory  nature. 

Varnish  should  be  pale  in  color.  It  should  be 
clear  and  transparent,  and  of  such  consistency  as  to 
be  easily  applied  with  a  brush.  The  varnish  when 
dry  should  have  the  appearance  of  glass.  It  should 
be  flexible  and  elastic,  and  show  no  defects  when 
dry.  In  applying  varnish,  many  defects  are  ob- 
servable, and  their  origin  is  often  hard  to  trace. 
These  defects  may  arise  from  faulty  manufacture, 
defective  surfaces  on  which  the  varnish  is  spread, 
changes  in  temperature,  dampness,  or  by  being 
improperly  applied. 

Sweating— This  arises  from  two  causes;  either 
the  varnish  contains  too  much  oil  for  the  amount 
of  gum  and  solvent  used,  or  it  is  due  to  the  varnish 
being  applied  to  a  surface  not  perfectly  dry.    To 

86 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

remedy  this,  allow  the  varnish  to  dry  as  perfectly 
as  it  will,  so  that  it  may  sweat  to  the  full  extent.  It 
is  then  rubbed  down  with  a  soft  rag  with  or  with- 
out fine  pumice  and  a  fresh  coat  of  varnish  applied. 
This  trouble  occurs  mostly  in  the  more  durable  ex- 
terior varnishes.  When  the  varnish  shells  off,  it 
indicates  that  too  little  oil  has  been  used  in  its  man- 
ufacture, or  that  the  varnish  coat  is  exposed  to  ex- 
cessive heat.  When  the  varnish  does  not  contain 
enough  solvent,  the  resulting  layer  is  too  thick  and 
the  surface  yields  a  skin,  while  the  layers  beneath 
remain  viscous  and  it  forms  folds  and  wrinkles. 
This  may  also  occur  from  a  sudden  change  of  tem- 
perature, or  second  coating  before  the  first  is  dry. 

The  appearance  of  striae,  or  air  holes  indicates 
that  too  much  dryers  have  been  used,  and  it  has  not 
been  allowed  to  age  properly. 

Pinholes  may  be  caused  by  mixing  varnish  of 
different  qualities. 

Varnish  spots  or  chills,  when  applied  at  too  low 
a  temperature. 

Varnish  will  draw  or  pull  if  the  surface  on 
which  it  is  put  has  not  been  properly  prepared. 

A  greasy  surface  causes  unequal  coating  and  a 
tendency  to  separate  or  crawl. 

When  under  the  influence  of  too  much  heat,  var- 
nish blows  or  blisters. 

Blooming.— If  moisture  condenses  on  wet  var- 
nish, the  surface  is  covered  with  a  velvety  covering 

87 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

called  bloom.  Sunlight  and  dry  air  should  remedy 
this. 

Gas  fumes  and  rapid  changes  of  temperature 
at  the  time  the  varnish  is  applied  may  produce  the 
same  effect. 

Noxious  gases  and  the  use  of  too  much  benzine 
in  reducing  will  cause  varnish  to  turn  yellow. 

Varnish  containing  little  oil  and  made  from 
rosin  will  frequently  turn  white  on  exposure  to 
dampness  and  atmospheric  conditions. 

Varnish  will  sometimes  become  dull  or  flat  when 
applied.  This  flatting  or  deadening  is  due  to  ex- 
cessive dampness,  in  the  atmosphere,  dampness  of 
the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied,  a  porous  surface, 
or  an  undue  amount  of  dryer  used  in  its  manufac- 
ture. This  deadening  does  not  always  occur  im- 
mediately, but  sooner  or  later  after  its  application. 

Good  Oil  Paint  should  contain  pure  drying  oil 
of  known  quality  and  only  such  pigments  as  do  not 
act  injuriously  on  the  oil  binder.  It  should  cover 
and  spread  well  and  not  pull  under  the  brush,  nei- 
ther should  it  contain  an  excess  of  thinners.  It 
should  not  contain  an  excess  of  dryer  and  when  it 
is  spread  should  dry  to  form  an  elastic  coat,  free 
from  imperfections. 

In  painting,  the  first  requisite  is  to  have  the  sur- 
face to  be  coated  perfectly  dry,  free  from  oil  or 
grease  and  in  proper  condition  to  receive  the  paint. 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Much  trouble  can  be  prevented  by  taking  these  pre- 
cautions. 

Crawling  or  separating  of  paint  may  be  caused 
by  a  greasy  or  glossy  surface  underneath,  or  the 
chilling  of  the  paint  when  applied  at  too  low  a  tem- 
perature. 

Paint  will  run  or  adhere  poorly  to  a  surface  if 
an  excess  of  oil  has  been  used  in  its  preparation. 
It  will  draw  or  pull  if  too  little  oil  has  been  used,  or 
when  applied  on  a  poorly  prepared  surface.  Paints 
containing  mineral  colors  and  the  so-called  neutral 
pigments,  do  not  work  so  smoothly  under  the  brush 
as  white  lead  paints.  In  the  latter  case,  the  lead 
forms  a  smoothly  working  compound  with  the  lin- 
seed oil. 

Paint  will  often  lose  its  gloss  if  covered  with 
frost  or  moisture  before  it  has  dried.  When  paint 
is  applied  too  heavy,  it  is  apt  to  crinkle  or  form 
folds  in  drying.  It  may  also  sag  under  these  con- 
ditions. 

Blistering  may  arise  from  several  causes,  the 
most  common  of  which,  is  moisture,  which  existed 
on  the  surface  of  the  work  when  coated,  or  which 
was  contained  in  the  wood  from  water  getting  be- 
hind the  weather  boards.  The  heat  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  building  or  the  heat  of  the  sun  will 
frequently  drive  or  draw  out  the  moisture  and 
where  such  action  occurs,  the  layer  of  paint,  if  still 
elastic,  loosens  from  the  wood  and  forms  blisters. 

89 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Sappy  resinous  wood  will  act  in  the  same  way.  The 
use  of  heavy  boiled  oil,  or  thickened  linseed  oil  has 
a  tendency  to  blister  when  exposed  to  the  sun's 
rays  before  the  coat  is  perfectly  dry  and  hard. 
Paints  which  are  too  elastic  and  pliable  are  liable 
to  this  trouble. 

Cracking,  peeling,  or  alligatoring— these  troub- 
les may  arise  from  moisture  in  the  wood  escaping 
after  the  paint  has  become  hard,  but  is  generally 
caused  by  the  paint  becoming  so  hard  as  to  lose  all 
elasticity.  Change  in  temperature  and  the  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  wood  or  metal,  you  can 
readily  understand,  will  cause  all  these  conditions 
when  the  paint  is  no  longer  pliable.  Lead  paints, 
in  drying,  remain  elastic  for  a  long  period,  and 
hence,  are  not  so  prone  to  these  troubles  as  zinc  and 
other  neutral  pigments  in  which  the  paint  dries 
hard.  It  must  be  said  in  all  fairness,  however,  that 
these  neutral  pigments  may  not  begin  to  crack  or 
peel,  until  after  a  lead  paint  applied  at  the  same 
time  has  chalked  very  considerably.  Under  coats 
of  old  paint  frequently  cause  cracking  and  peeling. 
Putting  a  coat  of  paint  which  dries  quickly  over 
one  which  contains  much  oil  or  varnish,  and  which 
has  not  become  thoroughly  dry,  produces  cracking. 

The  use  of  too  much  dryer,  or  too  little  oil  is  a 
frequent  cause  of  paint  cracking  and  deserves  spec- 
ial mention.     The  necessity  of  killing  all  knots  and 

90 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

resinous  or  sappy  places  in  the  surface  of  wood, 
with  a  suitable  coating  must  be  born  in  mind,  as 
this  is  a  frequent  cause  of  blistering.  Raw  oil  is 
superior  to  boiled  oil,  as  it  is  more  durable,  less 
likely  to  crack  or  blister  and  being  more  penetra- 
ting, enters  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  better,  form- 
ing a  hard,  tenacious  filling,  as  well  as  coating. 

Avoid  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  on  fresh  paint, 
as  far  as  possible,  as  this  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
blistering.  The  priming  coat  of  paint  is  by  far  the 
most  important  and  the  best  materials  should  be 
used  for  this.  Raw  oil  and  the  earth  colors,  such 
as  ochre  (previously  ground  in  oil)  should  be  used. 
The  addition  of  25  per  cent,  of  white  lead  will  im- 
prove the  coat.  Never  use  dry  ochre.  Zinc  white 
is  a  poor  primer,  because  of  its  tendency  to  peel 
off.    The  priming  coat  should  not  be  heavy. 


91 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PAINTING  AND  DECORATING. 

Wood  Work. 

In  General.— The  surface  to  be  treated,  in  all 
cases,  should  be  sandpapered  or  rubbed  with  medi- 
um steel  wool  to  give  an  even  facing  on  which  paint 
or  varnish  will  spread  easily,  and  must  be  free 

from  dampness  from  any  source. 

For  Exterior  Work.— After  the  surface  is  in 

proper  condition,  apply  shellac  to  all  knots,  prime 
or  first  coat  the  work  with  a  paint  somewhat  lighter 
than  the  final  color  to  be  used.  The  priming,  in 
fact,  all  under  coats,  should  contain  some  turpen- 
tine, otherwise  the  last  or  gloss  coat  (which  should 
be  almost  entirely  free  from  turpentine)  will  not 
adhere  well  to  the  under  coat.  All  puttying  is  done 
after  the  first  or  priming  coat  has  been  applied. 

For  exterior  varnishing,  two  or  three  coats  of 
any  good  outside  varnish  can  be  used,  no  other 
treatment  being  required,  except  to  have  a  suitable 
surface  for  the  application  of  same. 

For  Interior  Work.— Prime,  or  first  coat  on  the 
previously  smoothed  or  properly  prepared  surface 
and  putty  in  the  usual  way.    A  thin  coat  of  shellac 

92 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

before  priming  will  cause  the  paint  to  stand  oul 
better  and  is  an  advantage.  Proceed  as  in  the 
painting  of  exteriors.  When  a  dead  flat  surface  is 
desired  in  the  finishing  coat,  mix  the  paint  for  that 
coat  with  thinners  composed  of  8  parts  turpentine, 
1  part  linseed  oil,  and  1  part  dryer.  In  repainting 
old  work  inside,  it  is  well  to  coat  the  whole  surface 
first  with  shellac  to  prevent  the  old  color  striking 
through  and  thus  altering  the  shade  or  color  of  the 
newly  applied  paint. 

In  varnishing  interiors  it  is  usual  to  apply  a 
coat  of  liquid  wood  filler  as  a  primer  on  new  work. 
Putty  and  follow  with  two  coats  of  varnish.  In  fine 
work  on  hard  woods,  paste  filler  is  used;  rubbed 
when  dry  with  fine  steel  wool,  or  sand  paper,  and 
then  varnished.  Shellac  can  be  used  as  a  primer 
in  place  of  liquid  filler  and  answers  the  purpose 
very  well.  When  interior  work  is  to  be  stained, 
the  color  is  usually  added  to  the  filler  or  first  coat- 
ing, or  an  oil  or  turpentine  stain  applied  previous 
to  the  application  of  the  filler  or  varnish. 

Work  to  be  rubbed.— To  produce  the  finest  ef- 
fect in  varnishing,  the  final  coat  is  rubbed  and  pol- 
ished. This  can  be  done  with  No.  0  steel  wool,  fine 
pumice  stone  mixed  with  water,  or  raw  linseed  oil, 
or  with  rotton  stone  mixed  with  the  same  mediums. 
Powdered  pumice  stone,  or  rotton  stone  is  applied 
on  a  cloth  and  the  dry  varnish  rubbed  to  a  perfect 
finish.    A  final  polish  can  be  given  with  any  of  the 

93 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

polishing  preparations  recommended  for  such 
work  in  another  part  of  the  book.  In  producing  a 
perfect  surface*  each  coat  of  paint  or  varnish 
should  be  sand  papered,  or  rubbed  before  the  next 
coat  is  applied. 

Painting  on  Plaster.— If  the  plaster  is  new,  any 
caustic  alkilinity  should  be  corrected.  This  can  be 
done  by  applying  a  coat  of  linoleic  acid  or  boiled 
linseed  oil.  Linseed  oil  contains  naturally  lino- 
leic acid  in  sufficient  quantity.  If  linoleic  acid  is 
used,  it  must  be  applied  warm.  A  wash  of  water 
containing  carbonic  acid  gas  will  kill  the  caustic 
lime  by  converting  it  into  lime  carbonate  which  is 
neutral.  A  coating  of  liquid  silicate  of  soda  may 
also  be  used.  This  forms,  with  the  lime,  an  insolu- 
ble silicate  of  lime.  The  above  suggestions  apply, 
whether  the  painting  is  to  be  done  with  oil  or  water 
colors. 

White  lead  and  raw  linseed  oil,  with  litharge 
dryer,  mixed  rather  thin,  is  a  good  wall  priming. 

When  perfectly  dry,  a  second  coat  somewhat 
heavier  in  body  can  be  applied.  The  second  coat 
may  contain  1-4  turpentine.  If  a  third  coat  is  re- 
quired for  very  durable  work,  and  a  gloss  is  de- 
sired, use  2  parts  oil  to  1  part  turpentine.  If  a  flat 
finish  is  desired,  use  equal  parts  of  oil  and  turpen- 
tine. 


94 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

A  priming  of  caseine  mixed  with  cement  makes 
a  good  surface  on  which  to  paint. 

Fresco  or  Water  Paints.  — The  best  pigments 
for  this  work  is  for  white;  air  slacked  lime  free 
from  caustic  action,  so-  called  mild  lime,  or  paris 
white.  Yellow ;  raw  sienna  and  the  yellow  ochres. 
Red ;  the  red  oxides  of  iron  including  the  copperas 
reds.  Green ;  green  earth  (terra  verte),  cobalt  and 
time  chrome  greens.  Blue;  ultra  marine  and  co- 
balt. Brown;  the  umbers;  and  for  black;  lamp 
black  and  ivory  black. 

The  necessary  colors  for  water  color  painting 
may  be  produced  from  yellow,  red  and  blue.  Al- 
most all  colors  and  shades  can  be  produced  by 
proper  combinations.  When  brilliant  colors  are 
required,  the  yellow  may  be  gamboge,  red,  carmine 
and  the  blue  prussian;  they  are  not  permanent, 
however. 

One  part  gamboge  and  one  part  carcuine 
orange. 

Two  parts  gamboge  and  one  part  prussian 
blue = yellow  green. 

One  part  gamboge  and  two  parts  prussian 
blue = blue  green. 

Two  parts  prussian  blue  and  one  part  car- 
mine =  violet  blue. 

One  part  prussian  blue  and  two  parts  car- 
mine=red. 


95 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

By  changing  the  proportions  3  to  1,  other 
shades  are  produced,  and  by  dilution  with  water, 
lighter  tints  are  formed. 

In  decorating  interiors,  the  principal  color  used 
should  be  one  which  lights  up  well.  It  need  not 
necessarily  be  a  light  one. 

Positive  colors  should  not  be  placed  side  by 
side,  but  separated  by  white,  black  or  gold.  The 
same  colors  in  different  shades  may  be  used  one 
upon  another.  The  primary  colors,  red,  yellow  and 
blue,  should  be  used  sparingly.  Give  preference  to 
neutral  tints  without  glaring  contrasts. 

Dull  greens,  grays,  and  browns  may  be  allowed 
to  predominate.  Eemember  that  colors  on  light 
grounds  appear  darker  by  contrast  and  the  re- 
verse on  dark  grounds.  In  relief  work,  the  ground 
should  appear  darker  than  the  relief,  unless  gold 
be  used.  Let  one  color  predominate  over  another, 
and  remember  that  colors  have  compliments  which 
add  to  or  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the  adjoining 
color.  The  compliment  of  red  is  green;  blue,  or- 
ange ;  yellow,  violet.  Good  contrasts  are  black  and 
warm  brown ;  violet  and  pale  green ;  violet  and  rose 
color ;  deep  blue  and  golden  brown ;  chocolate  and 
light  blue ;  deep  red  and  grey ;  maroon  and  warm 
green;  deep  blue  and  pink;  chocolate  and  pea 
green;  maroon  and  chocolate;  claret  and  buff; 
black  and  green.  The  colors  should  blend  with  the 
furniture  and  carpet.    If  pictures  are  to  be  hung, 

96 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

choose  low  toned  neutral  tints.  This  applies  also 
to  wall  paper.  If  the  room  is  to  be  furnished 
without  pictures,  a  brilliant  paper,  rich  in  color, 
may  be  chosen  with  white  or  pearl  wood  work  and 
soft,  white  draperies. 

Hanging  wall  paper.— The  walls  must  be  first 
properly  prepared.  The  treatment  varies,  of 
course,  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  walls. 
If  the  walls  are  new,  they  should  be  perfectly  dry, 
and  if  the  lime  is  still  caustic  it  must  be  treated 
with  some  neutralizing  substance,  as  directed  in 
another  part  of  this  book.  If  the  walls  are  damp, 
they  must  receive  a  coating  of  shellac,  or  water- 
proof size,  otherwise  the  new  paper  will  soon  dis- 
color and  mildew.  A  waterproof  size  of  thin  shel- 
lac varnish  or  shellac  water  varnish  made  as  di- 
rected under  shellacs,  will  answer  all  purposes.  In 
all  cases,  walls  should  have  a  coat  of  glue  size  be- 
fore being  papered.  Where  very  fine  work  is  re- 
quired, it  is  advisable  to  first  apply  lining  paper  to 
the  walls  which  will  give  a  smooth  foundation  to 
work  upon  and  will  protect  the  wall  paper  from 
stains  striking  through.  In  repapering,  the  old 
paper  should  be  removed.  If  left  on,  it  is  unsani- 
tary and  will  render  it  more  difficult  to  produce  a 
good  job.  Washing  down  the  old  paper  with  hot 
water  applied  with  a  brush  soon  loosens  the  paper 
so  that  it  readily  scrapes  off.  When  the  walls  are 
very  bad  and  uneven,  battens  may  be  nailed  to  the 

97 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

walls  and  burlap  stretched  over  them.  The  wall 
paper  can  be  hung  on  the  burlap  after  it  has  been 
sized.  If  a  whitewashed  wall  is  to  be  papered,  the 
white  wash  must  be  removed  by  moistening  it  with 
hot  water  and  scraping. 

To  determine  the  number  of  rolls  of  paper 
needed :  measure  the  circumference  of  the  room  in 
feet,  deduct  the  width  of  the  doors  and  windows 
and  divide  by  three,  which  will  give  the  number  of 
rolls  required  for  a  room  from  10  to  12  feet  in 
height.  When  the  wall  is  less  than  10  feet  high, 
after  subtracting  the  width  of  the  doors  and  win- 
dows from  the  room's  circumference,  multiply  by 
two  and  divide  by  fifteen. 

Light  shades  of  paper  make  a  room  more  cheer- 
ful. 

Large  figures  make  a  room  appear  smaller. 
Low  rooms  should  have  a  striped  paper  running 
up  and  down  to  give  a  heightened  effect.  If  the 
room  has  many  windows,  use  subdued  tints.  It  is 
always  best  to  use  quiet  colors  which  do  not  attract 
too  much  attention  and  which  do  not  render  the 
furniture  prominent.  Dirty  wall  paper  may  be 
cleaned  by  preparing  a  mixture  of  4  pounds  of 
wheaten  flour  kneaded  into  a  stiff  dough,  with  7 
pints  of  water.     Wipe  the  paper  all  over  with  this. 

Hints  for  Interior  Decoration. 
With  antique  oak  or  walnut  wood  work,  the 

98 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

walls  may  be  olive  green  with  gold  effects  in  the 
frieze.  The  ceiling  may  be  in  russet;  the  uphol- 
stery, red,  and  the  draperies  maroon  or  bronze  pre- 
dominating*. 

Ash  wood  work  harmonizes  well  with  sage 
green  walls,  with  sage  and  dull  yellow  frieze  and 
cornices;  buff  ceiling  and  dull  green  upholstery, 
trimmed  with  red,  and  draperies  to  match  the  wood 
work  and  walls. 

Brown  wood  work  may  have  dull  red  walls, 
blue  frieze,  buff  cornices  and  warm  yellow  ceiling, 
old  gold,  red  and  blue  upholstery,  and  grey  drap- 
eries. 

Cedar  wood  work  blends  well  with  terra  cotta 
or  red  walls,  frieze  and  cornices  lighter  reds,  ceil- 
ing cream ;  upholstery  red ;  olive  and  gold  and  old 
ivory  draperies. 

Chestnut  wood  work  may  have  orange  walls, 
deeper  yellow  frieze,  and  cornices  toned  with  red 
and  black ;  lighter  yellow  ceiling ;  upholstery,  dull 
blue,  and  draperies  dull  blue  and  orange. 

Cream  wood  work  may  have  soft  warm  blue 
walls;  ivory  and  blue  frieze  and  cornices,  ceiling 
of  yellowish  pink,  and  the  upholstery,  dull  yellows. 

Fawn  colored  oak  wood  work  blends  well  with 
dull  drab  walls,  blue  or  red  in  frieze  and  cornices, 
light  drab  ceiling;  drab,  mixed  with  blue  and  red 
in  the  upholstery,  and  blue  and  Nile  green  draper- 
ies. 

99 


(Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Ivory  enamel  woo  work  may  have  warm  ecru 
walls,  old  rose,  chocolate  and  ecru  in  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, a  light,  warm  yellow  ceiling;  upholstery  old 
ivory,  ecru  and  chocolate,  and  rich  blue  draperies. 

Light  golden  oak  wood  work  may  have  pale 
blue  walls,  frieze  and  cornices  in  golden  yellows, 
and  blue,  ceiling  a  light  golden  yellow,  upholstery, 
blue  with  light  yellow,  and  pale  blue  draperies. 

Mahogany  wood  work  may  have  maroon  or  dull 
red  walls  and  rich  cornices,  ceiling  buff,  with  rich 
greens;  reds  and  browns  in  the  upholstery  and 
drapery. 

Pale  green  wood  work  may  have  deep  green 
walls,  greenish  gray  and  silver  in  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, and  gray  ceiling,  upholstery  of  dark  green, 
and  dull  rose  and  light  grey  draperies. 

Pearl  grey  wood  work  may  have  light  blue  or 
pink  walls,  deeper  blue  or  pale  red  frieze  and  cor- 
nices, pearl  grey  ceiling,  buff,  silver  and  light  pink 
or  blue  upholstery,  and  old  rose  and  blue  draper- 
ies. 

Silver  birch  wood  work  may  have  medium  yel- 
low or  silver  walls,  sea  green  frieze,  silver  cornice, 
pale  yellow  ceiling,  dull  yellow,  silver  and  green 
upholstery,  and  pale  green  or  pink  draperies. 

Yellow  orange  wood  work  may  have  lemon  yel- 
low walls,  yellow  orange  frieze,  pale  yellow  and 
gold  cornices,  light  yellow  ceiling,  upholstery  yel- 

100 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

low  orange,  cardinal  reds,  warm  browns  and  a  lit- 
tle olive  or  blue,  and  draperies  of  blue  and  russet 
brown. 


101 


CHAPTER  X. 
FORMULAE. 

BRONZING  LIQUIDS  in  common  use  are  of  two 
kinds :  collodion  varnish,  vulgarly  known  as  ' '  Ba- 
nana liquid"  and  various  thin  oil  varnishes  con- 
taining gum  or  rosin  and  an  excess  of  benzine  as  a 
reducer. 

The  first  variety  is  composed  of  gun  cotton 
(collodion)  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate  which  is 
made  from  fusel  oil.  This  solution  makes  an  ex- 
cellent medium  for  bronzes,  as  it  dries  quickly, 
flows  well  and  does  not  impair  the  lustre  of  the 
bronze,  but  rather  brings  it  out  more  prominently. 
Furthermore,  when  dry,  it  is  washable  with  soap 
and  water  without  injury,  which  cannot  be  said  of 
oil  and  resin  liquids. 

In  order  to  cheapen  the  amyl  acetate  prepara- 
tions, some  gum  is  substituted  in  part  to  replace  the 
more  expensive  gun  cotton,  and  benzine  is  substi- 
tuted in  part,  for  amyl  acetate.  Such  preparations 
are  less  durable.  Any  of  the  collodion  varnish 
formulae  will  make  satisfactory  bronzing  liquids. 

102 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Ordinary  bronzing  liquid  can  be  made  by  com- 
bining one  part  of  any  pale  medium  to  quick  drying 
varnish  of  ordinary  quality,  with  four  parts  of  ben- 
zine. Add  one-half  part  of  liquid  dryer  if  a  very 
quick  drying  liquid  is  required. 

Turpentine  should  never  be  used  in  bronzing 
liquid,  as  it  attacks  the  bronze,  injuring  the  color 
and  lustre.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  use  a  benzine 
varnish  when  possible.  Bronzing  liquid  must  be 
very  thin  in  body.  When  radiators  or  other  arti- 
cles are  bronzed  while  hot,  the  resulting  coat  will 
present  the  appearance  of  an  enameled  surface 
due  to  the  varnish  baking  on  them,  if  liquid  made 
from  gum  varnish  be  used. 

To  prepare  a  cheap  liquid,  mix  1  gallon  of 
heavy  gloss  oil  or  pale  rosin  copal  varnish  with 
3  3-4  gallons  of  benzine  and  1-4  gallon  of  pale 
liquid  dryer. 

CEMENTS,  PASTES  AND  PUTTIES. 
Cement  for  Steam  Pipes  and  Iron  Surfaces. 
Mix  thoroughly  in  powdered  form, 

Litharge, .2  parts 

Slacked  lime, 1  part 

Sand,  or  Silex, 1  part 

Compound  the  above  with  sufficient  linseed  oil 
varnish  (hot)  to  form  a  stiff  paste.  Use  fresh  and 
warm. 

103 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Cement  for  Fastening  Metal  or  Porcelain 

Letters  on  Glass,  etc. 

No.  1. 

Good  varnish,  . . 3  parts 

Linseed  oil,  (boiled) 1  part 

Turpentine, 1  part 

Glue, 1  part 

Dissolve  the  glue  (pulverized)  by  heating  the 
above  mixture  in  a  water  bath ;  when  complete,  add 
2  parts  of  slacked  lime. 

No.  2. 
Compound  white  lead  or  litharge  with  enough 
dammar,  or  other  gum  varnish,  to  form  a  thin  ce- 
ment. The  addition  of  1  part  of  good  liquid  glue 
to  each  5  parts  of  the  above  will  improve  the  ad- 
hesiveness. 

Cement  for  Metal  Letters  On  Glass. 

Litharge  powdered,   2  parts 

White  lead, 1  part 

Boiled  linseed  oil, 3  parts 

Demar  varnish,   1  part 

Mix  only  enough  for  immediate  use. 

Quick  Drying  Cement  for  Use  on  Iron,  Stone, 
or  Glass. 

Mix  powdered  litharge  with  enough  glycerine 
to  make  a  paste.  Mix  only  sufficient  for  immediate 
use. 

104 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

To  Prepare  Pure  Caseine  For  Cements  and  Other 
Purposes. 

Milk,  carefully  skimmed,  free  from  cream,  is 
curdled  with  the  addition  of  a  little  vinegar,  or  by 
simply  standing  in  a  warm  place. 

Pour  the  curdled  milk  through  filter  paper, 
which  will  allow  the  curds  or  caseine  to  remain. 
Wash  with  pure  water.  To  remove  all  traces  of 
fat,  the  caseine  may  be  tied  in  a  cloth  and  boiled  in 
water  a  short  time,  the  latter  treatment  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary.  Allow  the  caseine  to  dry  on  blot- 
ting paper  in  a  warm  place.  If  well  dried,  it  will 
keep  a  long  time. 

Ordinary  Caseine  Cement. 

Caseine, 12  parts 

Slacked  lime, 50  parts 

Fine  sand,   50  parts 

Water,  sufficient  to  make  a  paste. 

For  filling  holes  and  interstice  in  stone. 

Cement  to  Unite  Glass  and  Metal. 
Make  a  thin  paste  of  alum  and  plaster  of  paris 
with  water.     Useful  also  for  filling  crevices,  etc. 
Cement  for  Marble  and  Other  Minerals. 

Portland  cement, ,...,..  .2  parts 

Slacked  lime  powder, 1  part 

Litharge,  1  part 

Mix  with  enough  silicate  of  soda  to  make  a  thin 
paste. 

105 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Crack  and  Crevice  Filler. 
Make  a  paste  of  1  pound  of  flour  and  3  quarts 
of  water  and  1  oz.  of  alum.  Soak  in  this  thin  paste, 
enough  newspapers  or  other  unsized  paper  to  form 
a  thick  putty.  This  is  excellent  for  filling  cracks 
in  floors.  It  becomes  hard  and  tenacious  and  will 
shrink  very  little. 

Joiners'   Putty— For  Stone,  Brick  and  Wood 

Work. 

Mix  8  ozs.  of  dry  clay  or  whiting  and  1  oz.  of 
powdered  litharge  with  enough  linseed  oil  to  make 
a  soft  putty.     Very  durable. 

Cement  For  Paper. 
Dissolve  4ozs.  of  good  glue  or  gelatine  in  1  pint 
of  water.     Add  8  ozs.  of  brown  sugar  and  4  ozs.  of 
gum  arabic  or  dextrine.    Heat  the  mixture  to  make 
a  perfect  solution. 

Wall  Paper  Paste. 

Make  a  thick  paste  with  wheat  or  rye  flour  in 
cold  water.  Stir  until  no  lumps  remain.  Add  1-2 
oz.  of  alum  to  each  pound  of  flour  used.  Then  add 
slowly,  with  constant  stirring,  boiling  water  to  the 
amount  of  one  quart  to  each  pound  of  flour.  The 
addition  of  15  to  30  drops  of  carbolic  acid  to  each 
pail  of  paste  will  prevent  its  souring.    A  few  drops 

106 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

of  formaldehyde  solution  is  even  better  if  the  car- 
bolic odor  is  objectionable. 

Rye  flour  makes  a  stronger  and  more  tenacious 
paste. 

Wall  Paper  Paste. 

Make  a  flour  paste  by  boiling  flour  with  suffi- 
cient water.  To  each  5  pounds  of  the  paste,  add  3 
ozs.  saturated  solution  of  alum  and  5  ozs.  solution 
of  dextrine.    Both  solutions  made  with  hot  water. 

Paste  For  Ordinary  Purposes. 

Dissolve  dextrine  in  sufficient  water  to  make  a 
fluid  paste.  Add  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  to 
preserve  it. 

Caseine  Cement  For  General  Use. 

Dissolve  together,  caseine  and  silicate  of  soda ; 
use  alone,  or  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  chalk 
or  silex. 

To  Render  Dammar  Varnish  Clear. 

Add  to  each  gallon,  1  pint  of  pure  grain  or  wood 
alcohol.  This  will  also  aid  the  drying  qualities. 
Good  dammar  is  simply  dammar  gum  and  turpen- 
tine, in  about  equal  parts,  by  weight,  dissolved  to- 
gether in  the  cold  or  with  a  little  heat.  Copal  spirit 
varnishes  are  made  in  the  same  way.  The  addition 
of  a  little  venice  turpentine,  1  to  2  ozs.  to  the  quart, 
gives  any  spirit  varnish  more  elasticity. 

107 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Liquid  Glue. 
No.  1. 
Dissolve  good  glue  in  vinegar.     Add  a  little 
alum  and  mix  alcohol  to  the  amount  of  1-4  the  bulk 
of  the  mixture. 

No.  2. 
Dissolve  3  parts  of  glue  (good  quality)  in  8 
parts  hot  water.     When  cool,  add  1-2  part  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  3-4  part  zinc  sulphate. 

No.  3. 
Dissolve  glue  in  vinegar  so  that  when  cool  it 
forms  a  thick  fluid ;  add  1  part  nitric  acid  to  each 
20  parts  of  the  dissolved  glue. 

Water-Proof  Glue. 

Boil  for  10  minutes  a  mixture  of 
Thick  solution  of  glue  in  water,  . .  10  parts 

Linseed  oil,  (boiled) 5  parts 

Litharge, 1  part 

Use  hot 

Putty  For  Floors  and  to  Fill  Cracks  or 

Crevices. 

No.  1. 

Caseine, 1  part 

Water, 7  parts 

Spirits  of  ammonia, 1  part 

Slacked  lime,  1-2  part 

108 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

No.  2. 

Glue,   i 2  parts 

Water, 14  parts 

Plaster  of  Paris, 4  parts 

Litharge, 4  parts 

TO  ETCH  GLASS. 
Paint  the  entire  surface  except  the  design  or 
part  to  be  etched  with  good  asphaltum  varnish  and 
allow  it  to  dry.  Place  a  rim  of  putty  made  of  wax 
and  starch  about  the  design  and  pour  hydrofluoric 
acid  on  the  exposed  surface.  Allow  to  stand  five 
minutes ;  pour  the  acid  back  into  the  flask  and  wash 
the  entire  surface,  removing  the  asphaltum  with, 
turpentine. 

• 

FROSTING  ON  GLASS. 

Rub  the  glass  with  a  piece  of  marble  dipped  in 
fine  glass  cutters '  sand  or  fine  emery  and  water. 

A  chemical  frosting  is  made  by  mixing  together 
a  strong  hot  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  a 
clear  solution  of  gum  arabic ;  apply  warm. 

Or,  use  a  strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  sodium 
warm  and  when  cool,  wash  over  with  gum  water. 

TO  GILD  ON  GLASS. 

Clean  the  surface  carefully  with  whiting  and 
then  alcohol.  Make  a  size  by  boiling  2  ozs.  of  best 
isinglass  or  gelatine  glue  in  a  little  hot  water.   Add 

109 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

this  to  i  quart  of  alcohol  and  enough  water  to  make 
3  quarts  in  all.  Strain  the  mixture.  Size  the  sur- 
face to  be  gilded  and  lay  the  gold  leaf  on  it.  Scat- 
ter precipitated  chalk  on  the  gold.  When  dry,  pol- 
ish with  silk  velvet,  after  brushing  off  the  chalk. 
Back  the  gold  with  Demar  or  copal  varnish. 

In  ordinary  window  work,  use  good  prepared 
gold  size.  In  case  the  isinglass  size  is  too  weak, 
add  more  isinglass.     Test  on  glass  before  using. 

Gilding  in  General.— The  first  requisite  is 
good  gold  leaf.  It  is  well  to  select  some  well 
known  brand. 

For  outside  work  in  particular,  and  on  all  or- 
dinary work,  patent  gold  may  be  used.  In  this 
case,  each  leaf  of  gold  has  a  piece  of  thin  paper 
slightly  adhering  to  it.  The  gold  and  paper  can 
be  easily  cut  to  any  size  desired,  and  readily  ap- 
plied to  the  previously  sized  surface,  the  gold  ad- 
hering to  the  size  and  the  paper  loosening  from  the 
leaf.  Patent  gold  saves  much  waste  and  is  a  great 
convenience.  Its  cost  is  little  above  that  of  ordin- 
ary gold  leaf. 

Ordinary  gold  leaf  may  be  applied  in  a  similar 
manner.  Lay  the  book  flat  upon  a  table  and  care- 
fully open  the  first  leaf ;  cut  off  the  paper  leaf  just 
raised  with  a  pair  of  sharp  shears.  Rub  the  paper, 
laid  flat  upon  tne  hand,  on  your  hair.  Then  lay 
the  page  back  in  its  original  position  on  the  gold 
foil  and  press  firmly  with  the  hand ;  lift  carefully 

110 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

and  the  gold  will  adhere ;  use  this  the  same  as  pat- 
ent gold.  The  usual  method  followed  for  ordinary 
leaf  is  to  place  the  leaf  on  a  flat  cushioned  board, 
or  gold  leaf  cushion,  by  means  of  a  small  spatula, 
and  after  carefully  spreading  the  leaf,  cut  it  to  the 
desired  sizes  by  means  of  the  spatula  before  men- 
tioned. 

A  brush  about  3  inches  wide,  made  from  paste 
board  and  camel's  hair,  called  a  gilder's  tip,  is  used 
to  apply  the  leaf.  By  rubbing  the  brush  through 
your  hair  you  generate  sufficient  electricity,  or  take 
enough  grease  from  the  hair  to  pick  up  the  gold 
with  the  brush  and  thus  apply  it  to  the  sized  sur- 
face. It  should  be  carefully  applied  so  as  not  to 
overlap  unduly.  When  finished  and  dry,  the  work 
may  be  burnished  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  silk 
velvet  or  some  similar  soft  cloth.  Do  not  attempt 
to  burnish  until  the  work  is  perfectly  dry.  When 
gold  leaf  is  applied  to  glass,  it  is  customary  to  give 
it  a  protective  backing  of  paint  or  varnish. 

The  tools  required,  then,  are  a  cushion,  a  four- 
inch  spatula  and  a  gilder's  tip,  the  brush  before 
described. 

Besides  the  patent  gold  and  ordinary  gold  leaf, 
of  which  two  shades  are  generally  procurable,  there 
are  a  number  of  artificial  gold  leafs  known  as  com- 
position leaf,  Dutch  metal,  etc.  They  tend  to  tarn- 
ish quickly  on  exposure  and,  hence,  are  but  little 
used,  at  least  in  this  country. 

Ill 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Silver  leaf  is  also  procurable,  but  aluminum 
leaf  has  largely  replaced  it,  because  it  is  cheaper, 
and  for  the  same  reason  that  aluminum  bronze  has 
replaced  so-called  silver  bronzes.  Even  silver  it- 
self, quickly  tarnishes  while  aluminum  does  not. 

GILDING  ON  IRON  OR  METAL  WORK. 
The  articles  to  be  japanned  are  cleaned  of  oil 
or  grease  with  turpentine  and  a  coat  of  japan  var- 
nish applied.  "When  baking  japan  is  used,  the  ar- 
ticles coated  are  dried  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature 
of  from  120  to  250  degrees  Fahrenheit,  which  gives 
a  hard  and  smooth  enameled  surface.  The  parts 
to  be  gilded  are  now  coated  with  gold  size  thinned 
with  turpentine.  If  bronze  is  to  be  used,  it  is  ap- 
plied by  being  dusted  on  and  the  excess  removed. 
In  place  of  bronze  powder,  gold  or  other  metal  leaf 
can  be  used.  After  the  gliding,  a  light  coat  of 
transparent  lacquer  or  varnish  is  applied,  and  if 
possible,  allowed  to  dry  in  the  oven  at  a  moderate 
temperature. 

IN  SIGN  PAINTING,  all  roman  capitals,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  may  be  the  same  height  and  breadth,  ex- 
cept I,  J,  M,  and  W. 

The  breadth  of  I  and  J  is  equal  to  1-2  the  height, 
and  M  and  W,  1 1-2  times  the  height. 

Gilt  letters  are  written  with  Japan  gold  size  and 
before  dry,  the  leaf  is  applied.  Smooth  gently 
with  a  piece  of  cotton. 

112 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

GOLD  SIZE,  (oil  size),  add  enough  finely  ground 
yellow  ochre  to  varnish  makers'  boiled  oil  to  make 
a  thick,  smooth  paste  and  thin  with  turpentine. 

No.  2. 

WATER  SIZE.— Mix  a  thick  solution  of  gelatine 
dissolved  in  water,  with  dry  yellow  ochre.  Thin 
with  water  to  the  proper  consistency  for  applica- 
tion.    Used  for  gilding. 

A  good  Japan  gold  size  may  be  prepared  by 
mixing  together,  1  part  of  good  turpentine  Japan, 
1  part  of  ordinary  gum  varnish,  and  1  part  of  tur- 
pentine. If  too  heavy,  thin  by  the  addition  of  more 
turpentine. 

BACKING  GLASS  SIGNS  WITHOUT  SHADES. 

After  removing  the  superfluous  gold,  apply  2 
coats  of  black  paint  made  from  the  best  drop  black 
in  oil.  Cover  the  entire  back  of  the  glass  and  the 
letters  with  this. 

backing  glass  signs  with  shades. 
Apply  2  coats  of  the  same  black,  but  leave  the 
shades  free. 

When  the  black  is  dry,  paint  the  places  left  for 
the  shades  with  red,  green  or  any  other  color  oil 
paint  desired. 

DECORATIVE  ENAMELS — Zinc- white  is  used  as  a 
base  in  the  production  of  enamels,  because  of  its 
whiteness,  the  bright  tones  it  produces  with  colors 
and  on  account  of  the  action  this  pigment  has  when 

113 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

combined  with  resin  varnishes.  The  action  is 
somewhat  like  that  which  occurs  when  white  lead  is 
mixed  with  linseed  oil. 

Zinc  ground  in  demar  is  best,  but  that  finely 
ground  in  poppy  seed  oil,  or  refined  linseed  oil  will 
answer  all  ordinary  purposes. 

For  all  enamels  the  following  must  be  observed ; 
that  the  zinc  and,  in  fact,  all  pigments  be  finely 
ground,  that  the  enamel  be  carefully  strained  after 
it  is  made.  That  it  be  not  too  heavy  in  body,  but 
about  the  consistency  of  varnish. 

To  prepare  a  good  enamel,  suitable  for  first- 
class  work,  make  a  liquid  base  by  combining  4  1-2 
parts  of  good  Demar  varnish,  4  1-2  parts  of  good 
pale  rubbing  varnish,  with  1  part  of  turpentine, 
and  add  to  each  gallon,  1-2  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead,  pre- 
viously rubbed  up  in  a  little  oil  or  varnish. 

To  each  gallon  of  this  liquid,  5  pounds  of  white 
zinc,  ground  in  paste  form,  is  thoroughly  incorpor- 
ated. 

Exterior,  weather-proof,  and  so-called  marine 
enamel  is  made  by  combining  9  parts  of  the  palest 
wearing  body,  or,  preferably,  white  finishing  var- 
nish, (made  from  white  Kauri  gum)  with  1  part 
turpentine  and  adding  5  lbs.  of  the  best  oxide  of 
zinc,  (zinc  white)  ground  in  oil,  to  each  gallon. 
The  addition  of  1-2  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead,  as  before 
mentioned,  will  improve  the  drying.  Strain  after 
mixing. 

114 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

No.  2. 
Use  4  parts  of  No.  2  Demar  varnish,  5  parts  of 
any  pale,  low-priced  quick  drying  varnish  and  1 
part  turpentine,  adding,  as  above,  1-2  oz.  sugar  of 
lead  to  each  gallon  of  liquid.  The  same  amount 
of  zinc  is  used  as  in  the  first. 

No.  3. 

Use  9  parts  Demar  varnish,  1  part  turpentine, 
with  1-2  oz.  sugar  of  lead  to  each  gallon. 

The  sugar  of  lead  is  prepared  by  triturating  or 
grinding  the  powder  with  a  little  oil  or  varnish  be- 
fore adding  it  to  the  solution. 

No.  4. 

Use  10  parts  of  palest  quick  drying  rosin  var- 
nish, 1  part  pale  liquid  dryer  and  1  part  benzine. 
Add  5  lbs.  of  zinc  white  to  each  gallon. 

To  produce  blue  white,  add  a  trifle  of  prussian 
blue  or  ultramarine  in  oil. 

The  above  formulae  are  for  white.  Tints  are 
made  by  adding  sufficient  oil  color  strained  after 
thining  slightly  with  turpentine. 

The  best  white  or  porcelain  enamel  suitable  for 
all  decorative  purposes,  and  which  can  be  rubbed 
and  polished  to  any  degree  desired,  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: 

25  lbs.  Best  French  Zinc,  (ground  in 

Demar  varnish) 
2  gallons  of  palest  rubbing  varnish 

115 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

2  gallons,  best  white  Demar  varnish 

1  gallon  turpentine 

2  ozs.  sugar  of  lead  is  added. 

The  sugar  of  lead  is  previously  ground  or 
rubbed  down  to  a  smooth  paste  in  a  little  varnish. 

The  addition  of  1-2  oz.  of  dry  Prussian  blue  will 
produce  the  blue  white  or  porcelain  shade.  In  ad- 
ding blue,  great  care  must  be  excerised,  lest  too 
much  blue  be  introduced. 

The  enamel,  after  thorough  mixing,  should  be 
carefully  strained  to  free  it  from  all  unmixed  par- 
ticles. 

Black  enamel.— Add  1-4  lb.  of  carbon  black, 
ground  in  oil,  to  each  gallon  of  any  quick  drying 
varnish  which  has  been  slightly  thinned  with  tur- 
pentine. 

Red  enamel.— Add  4  lbs.  of  any  good  Vermil- 
lion to  each  gallon  of  liquid  made  as  above. 

Flat  White  Primer.— Mix  1  part  raw  oil,  1 
part  dryer,  with  8  parts  turpentine.  Add  from  25 
to  40  pounds  of  white  lead  in  oil  to  each  gallon  to 
produce  the  body  and  covering  power  required. 
Zinc  can  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  20  to  25 
pounds  to  the  gallon,  in  place  of  white  lead,  but 
does  not  cover  so  well. 

Bath  Tub  Enamel.— Mix  9  parts  pale  wearing 
body  varnish  with  1  part  turpentine.  To  each  gal- 
lon of  the  above,  add  5  pounds  of  a  mixture  com- 

116 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

posed  of  1  part  white  lead  and  2  parts  zinc,  ground 
in  oil. 

In  making  enamels,  it  is  always  well  to  care- 
fully strain  them  before  use,  through  cheese  cloth. 

Enameling  Bath  Tubs.— Clean  the  surface  to 
be  enameled  with  a  strong  solution  of  washing  soda 
in  water.  After  drying,  it  should  be  rubbed  down 
with  sand  paper  and  all  dust  removed. 

Three  coats  of  enamel  are  necessary  to  make  a 
good  job,  and  plenty  of  time  must  be  allowed  each 
coat  to  dry  thoroughly.  Flat  white  primer  may  be 
used  for  the  under   coats.     Finish   with   enamel. 

To  Enamel  Paper.— Melt  1  pound  of  paraffine 
wax,  withdraw  from  the  fire;  just  before  it  be- 
gins to  solidify,  mix  with  1  gallon  of  benzine  or 
gasoline.  The  color  is  prepared  by  mixing  10 
parts  of  whiting,  paris  white,  or  barytes  and  the 
necessary  pigment  to  produce  the  desired  shade, 
with  1  part  of  gelatine  glue  previously  dissolved  in 
a  little  water. 

To  each  pound  of  the  prepared  color,  add  and 
mix  1-4  pound  of  the  prepared  paraffine.  Strain 
before  using.     This  will  render  paper  waterproof. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS. 

Floors,  both  soft  and  hard  wood,  admit  of  sev- 
eral methods  of  satisfactory  treatment,  depending 
upon  their  condition  and  the  amount  of  wear  they 
are  subjected  to.    The  object  being  to  give  them  a 

117 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

durable,  elastic,  but  hard  coating,  capable  of  resist- 
ing wear  and  tear,  and  to  show  in  the  least  possible 
degree,  scratches,  or  other  marks  from  any  of  the 
ordinary  conditions  to  which  they  are  subjected. 

If  the  floor  to  be  treated  is  in  too  bad  condition 
to  show  the  natural  beauty  of  the  wood,  a  floor 
paint,  made  according  to  the  floor  paint  receipt 
given  in  another  part  of  the  book,  is  the  only  prac- 
tical method.  Some  color  should  be  selected  which 
is  in  harmony  with  the  other  decorations  of  the 
room,  and  at  the  same  time,  one  which  will  not  show 
dust  or  dirt  readily. 

If  the  natural  or  treated  wood  is  in  fair  condi- 
tion, the  worn  coating  can  be  removed  by  the  use 
of  one  of  the  varnish  removers  recommended, 
which  will  also  remove  the  dirt,  or  it  can  be  rubbed 
down  thoroughly  with  steel  wool.  When  this  arti- 
cle is  used,  take  off  all  superficial  coats  with  steel 
shavings,  and  finally,  finish  with  No.  1  or  No.  2  steel 
wool.  In  very  fine  work,  No.  0  steel  wool  can  be 
used.  When  a  natural  finish  is  desired,  proceed  as 
follows : 

No.  1. 

Apply  two  or  three  coats  of  any  good  floor  var- 
nish, allowing  each  coat  to  dry  thoroughly  before 
the  next  is  put  on.  No  other  treatment  in  this  case 
is  necessary.  Let  the  varnish  be  thin  in  body  and 
be  sure  to  spread  it  carefully. 

118 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 


No.  2. 

For  Hard  Wood  Floors.— First  apply  a  coat  of 
good  paste  wood  filler  thinned  with  turpentine, 
when  dry,  rub  with  fine  steel  wool,  or  sand  paper, 
after  which,  iioor  varnish  can  be  applied  as  above. 
The  most  satisfactory  method,  however,  is  to  apply 
two  coats  of  good  floor  wax  after  filling,  each  coat 
of  wax  being  thoroughly  rubbed  with  a  woolen 
cloth  or  weighted  floor  brush.  When  wax  is  used, 
a  light  coat,  can  be  applied  once  a  month,  which  will 
serve  to  keep  the  floor  always  in  good  condition. 

No.  3. 

In  place  of  wood  filler,  use  grain  alcohol  white 
shellac  and  use  floor  wax  over  this  coating. 

No.  4. 

After  preparing  the  floor,  apply  in  succession 
three  coats  of  white  shellac,  giving  each  coat  suf- 
ficient time  to  dry.  This  treatment  is  adaptable 
to  hard  wood  and  parquetry  floors,  and  for  such 
floors,  is  the  usual  treatment. 

Liquid  wood  filler,  when  used,  is  best  adapted 
to  soft  woods,  and  it  is  essential  that  the  filler  be 
composed  of  good  gum  varnish,  otherwise,  if  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  moisture  and  wear,  the  coat- 
ing will  mar,  disfigure,  and  turn  white. 

On  smooth  hard  wood  and  parquetry  floors,  pre- 

119 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

pared  wax  can  be  used  as  directed  previously,  with- 
out other  treatment. 

STAINING  FLOORS. 

Floors  may  be  previously  stained  any  desired 
color,  with  a  good  turpentine,  or  oil  stain  before  ap- 
plying the  filler  or  shellac,  varnish  or  wax,  or  a 
stain  can  be  mixed  with  the  filler  as  desired  and 
thus  save  one  operation. 

It  is  best  to  apply  first  a  thin  stain  which  will 
penetrate  the  fibre  of  the  wood,  before  other  treat- 
ment, as  by  this  method  the  color  will  be  much  more 
permanent,  and  not  so  easily  worn  off. 

To  Summarize: 
Floors  may  be  painted. 

Varnished  with,  or  without  previous  staining. 
Coated  with  paste  or  liquid  wood  filler,  or  shellac 

and  varnished  or  waxed. 
Simply  shellaced  without  other    treatment,    or 
wax  may  be  applied   alone.     The   last  two 
methods  are  adapted  to  hard  wood  floors. 
The  quickest  method  to  preserve  the  natural 
wood  and  obtain  a  fine  finish  is  to  shellac  the  wood 
(two  coats)  and  apply  one  or  two  coats  of  pre- 
pared floor  wax. 

Floors  may  also  be  oiled  without  other  treat- 
ment, but  this  tends  to  darken  the  wood  and,  after 
repeated  coatings,  it  is  apt  to  retain  much  dust  and 

120 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

dirt.  A  floor  oil,  or  polish  is  made  by  mixing  four 
parts  of  raw  linseed  oil,  one  part  of  turpentine,  and 
1-2  part  of  orange  shellac  varnish.  Shake  well 
when  using.  In  applying,  rub  this  in  thoroughly. 
It  can  be  used  to  advantage  as  a  polish  on  finished 
floors.  Raw  oil,  to  which  a  little  dryer  has  been 
added,  one  part  of  dryer  to  ten  parts  oil,  will  also 
make  a  satisfactory  polish  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  so-called  floor  oil  in  common  use,  sold  un- 
der various  names  is  similar  to  the  folowing : 

Take  pale  paraffine  oil  of  light  or  medium  body, 
(25  or  28  degree  gravity)  heat  it  gently,  and  to  each 
gallon,  stir  in  one  pound  of  melted  paraffine  wax. 
Be  sure  that  the  wax  and  oil  are  thoroughly  com- 
bined. This  mixture  makes  an  excellent  furniture 
and  bar  polish  also.     It  both  cleans  and  polishes. 

Paraffine  oil,  without  the  addition  of  wax,  is  also 
an  excellent  cleaner  and  polisher  for  all  wood  work. 

PASTE  WOOD  FILLERS. -The  base  of  these  fillers 
is  some  finely  ground  substance  which,  when  mixed 
with  oil  and  dryer  and  thinned  with  turpentine  or 
benzine  and  applied  to  wood,  will  fill  the  pores  or 
interstices  so  thoroughly  as  to  render  the  surfaces 
thus  treated  impervious  or  non-absorbent.  Silex, 
talc,  terra  alba,  whiting,  china  clay  and  barytes  are 
largely  used  for  this  purpose.  The  more  transpar- 
ent and  white  the  base  is,  the  more  satisfactory  its 
use,  as  the  object  is  to  preserve  the  natural  color 
of  the  wood,  or,jf  a  stain  is  used,  the  filler  must  not 

121 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

dull  or  injure  the  transparency  of  the  color  com- 
bined with  it. 

Starch,  glue  and  dextrine  may  also  be  used,  but 
are  more  perishable  and,  therefore,  not  so  good. 

A  good  paste  filler  is  made  as  follows :  Grind 
dry  silex  to  a  paste  in  a  mixture  of  4  parts  raw  lin- 
seed oil  and  1  part  good  Japan  dryer.  The  other 
mineral  earths,  talc,  terra  alba,  whiting,  china  clay, 
or  barytes  are  made  into  filler  in  the  same  manner. 

To  prepare  for  use,  thin  with  turpentine  or  ben- 
zine to  the  required  body. 

Staining  colors  may  be  added  when  the  base  is 
being  ground,  or  after  thinning  with  turpentine  or 
benzine  for  use. 

Paste  fillers  are  adapted  for  open  grained  and 
hard  woods  and  require  rubbing  with  fine  steel 
wool  or  sand  paper,  before  the  finishing  coats  of 
shellac  or  varnish  are  applied. 

LiaiTID  WOOD  FILLERS.— For  soft  and  close 
grained  woods  and  on  work  where  labor  and  ma- 
terial must  be  minimized,  where  cost  is  an  object, 
and  little  sand  papering  or  rubbing  is  to  be  done, 
liquid  wood  filler  takes  the  place  of  paste  filler. 

Such  ready-for-use  fillers  are  usually  so  pre- 
pared as  to  save  a  coat  of  varnish  and  with  this 
object  in  view,  the  liquid  portion  is,  essentially,  a 
quick  drying  varnish  to  which  sufficient  transpar- 
ent white  pigment  is  added  to  properly  fill  the 
grain  of  the  wood. 

122 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Fobmulae. 

The  filler  should  be  so  prepared  as  to  work 
smoothly  under  the  brush,  without  pulling.  It 
should  be  light  in  color,  and  comparatively  trans- 
parent, so  as  not  to  discolor  or  mar  the  natural 
beauty  of  the  wood.  It  should  spread  well,  without 
showing  laps  and,  in  fact,  possess  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  a  varnish.  It  must  be  of  fair  body, 
and  stand  out  well  on  the  surface  of  the  work  to 
which  it  is  applied.  If  the  price  admits,  it  should 
be  composed  of  a  varnish  which  will  not  turn  white 
when  exposed  to  dampness  and,  finally,  the  pig- 
ment should  be  of  such  nature  that  it  will  not 
shrink,  which  excludes  the  use  of  starch  or  vegeta- 
ble matter  of  that  nature. 

When  a  smooth,  unctuous  pigment  like  clay  is 
used,  the  working  qualities  of  the  filler  is  much 
improved.  The  pigment  should  not  bake  or  settle 
hard  in  the  can. 

Such  filler  is  made  by  mixing  together  4  parts 
of  a  pale  varnish,  1  part  of  turpentine  or  ben- 
zine, and  1-2  part  of  pale  liquid  dryer.  To  each 
gallon  of  the  liquid  so  prepared,  add  and  mix  thor- 
oughly, 2  pounds  of  talc,  china  clay  or  silex. 

The  quality  and  cost  of  the  filler  will  depend 
upon  the  quality  of  varnish  used. 

For  cheap  work,  a  liquid  may  be  substituted, 
composed  of  9  parts  of  gloss  oil  or  pale  rosin  var- 
nish and  1  part  of  raw  linseed  oil,  together  with  1-2 

123 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

part  of  pale  cheap  dryer.  To  4  parts  of  this  var- 
nish mixture,  add  1  part  of  benzine  in  place  of  tur- 
pentine and  to  each  gallon  use  the  same  amount  cf 
pigment  as  in  the  first  formula.  The  amount  of 
pigment  may  be  modified  also. 

A  good,  serviceable  liquid  wood  filler  is  made 
as  follows : 

7  gallons  of  Pale  varnish  (quick  dry- 
ing), 
1-2  gallon,  Boiled  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon,  Pale  liquid  dryer, 
1  gallon,  Turpentine, 
15    pounds,    China   clay,    (perfectly 

dry), 
1-4  gallon  of  Solution  No.  1,  or  No.  2 
given  under  ready  mixed  paints. 

The  addition  of  the  solution  is  not  necessary, 
but  will  prevent  the  pigment  from  settling  so  read- 
ily in  the  bottom  of  the  can  and  the  filler  will  re- 
quire less  stirring,  enabling  a  more  uniform  coat 
to  be  applied. 

Some  fillers  contain  powdered  pumice.  Such  a 
pigment  is  rather  a  disadvantage,  in  that  it  pre- 
vents the  filler  working  smoothly  and  tends  to  leave 
the  work  rough,  thus  requiring  more  sand  papering. 

Liquid  filler  and  stain  combined  is  made  by  ad- 
ding to  the  transparent  or  light  liquid  filler  suitable 

124 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

pigments^  the  same  in  kind  and  amount  as  directed 
in  the  production  of  varnish  or  oil  stains,  or,  by  ad- 
ding to  the  varnish  stains,  1  1-2  lbs.  of  pigment  to 
each  gallon  of  stain. 

GRAINING,  or  the  art  of  imitating  colored  woods, 
while  at  one  time  very  popular,  is  not  so  much  in 
vogue  at  the  present  day,  but  yet  is  of  sufficient 
moment  to  note  carefully. 

It  is  much  more  difficult  than  ordinary  painting 
and  necessitates  the  careful  study  of  the  grain, 
knots  and  coloring  of  the  various  woods  to  be  imita- 
ted, as  well  as  the  careful  observation  of  grained 
work  done  by  others  expert  in  the  art. 

The  work  first  will,  of  necessity,  fall  far  short 
of  satisfactory  appearance,  but  the  art  can  read- 
ily be  acquired  by  observing  the  foregoing,  to- 
gether with  constant,  painstaking  practice. 

The  pigments  used  in  graining  are,  white  lead, 
and,  in  the  main,  the  various  earth  pigments :  um- 
bers, siennas,  vandyke  brown,  Venetian  red,  yel- 
low ochre,  together  with  drop  black,  and  for  ma- 
hogany and  rose  wood  graining,  vermillion  and 
crimson  lake. 

The  first  step  is  to  produce  a  good  ground  work 
which  must  be  in  tint  or  color  to  match  the  lightest 
parts  of  the  wood  to  be  represented.  All  pigments 
used  should  be  ground  finely  in  oil  and  of  known 
purity.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  graining 
colors  proper,  where  transparency  and  bright  tones 

125 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

are  essential  to  well  appearing  work.  If  the  colors 
used  are  not  of  this  sort,  the  work  will  present  a 
muddy  unsatisfactory  appearance. 

The  color  for  the  ground  work  may  be  mixed 
with  raw  linseed  oil,  three  parts,  turpentine,  one 
part,  with  sufficient  good  liquid  dryer  to  produce  a 
hard  surface,  more  turpentine  may  be  used  if  de- 
sired. 

Two  coats  of  the  ground  color  are  necessary  and 
each  should  be  carefully  sandpapered  after  it  is 
thoroughly  dry. 

The  paint  must  not  be  too  heavy  in  body,  lest  in 
drying  it  form  a  skin  on  the  surface  which,  on  man- 
ipulating the  various  tools  on  the  graining  color, 
will  rub  off  and  thus  spoil  the  work. 

When  the  ground  work  is  dry  and  properly  pre- 
pared, the  real  artistic  part  of  the  work  begins. 
The  tools  needed  are  an  ordinary  paint  brush, 
which  may  be  a  pound  brush,  or  a  flat  brush  three 
to  four  inches  in  width.  Special  brushes,  called 
grainers  are  made  for  this  purpose;  this  brush  is 
used  to  rub  in  the  graining  color.  Next,  a  set  of 
steel  graining  combs,  twelve  combs  comprise  a 
set ;  three,  one  inch  wide ;  three  two  inches ;  three, 
three  inches  and  three  four  inches  in  width.  Each 
comb  in  a  set  varies  in  the  size  of  the  teeth  from  its 
companions,  there  being  three  kinds,  having  each 
fine,  medium  and  coarse  teeth.  A  painter's  duster 
is  also  needed  and  plenty  of  soft  linen  rags  used 

126 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

in  wiping  out  the  color  to  produce  the  lights.  For 
special  and  particular  work  a  badger  hair  blender, 
which  is  used  to  soften  the  glazing  coat. 

An  oak  or  top  grainer  is  another  brush  used 
sometimes  to  soften  and  imitate  more  closely  vari- 
ous oaks,  and  is  manipulated  on  the  grained  work 
after  the  glazing  coat  is  put  on.  It  produces  a 
dimly  perceptible  grained  effect  on  this  coat. 

In  working  on  marble  graining,  the  piped  maple 
or  top  grainer  is  used  as  well  as  a  camel's  hair  cut- 
ter. 

In  mixing  the  graining  color,  use  largely  tur- 
pentine with  only  sufficient  linseed  oil,  (boiled  oil 
and  no  dryer),  or  (a  little  dryer  with  raw  oil)  to 
prevent  the  color  from  setting  too  quickly.  Rub 
in  the  graining  color,  which  is  mixed  rather  thin 
and  not  containing  too  much  pigment,  with  a  rather 
stiff  brush  as  previously  mentioned. 

In  making  dappled  work,  comb  the  surface  be- 
fore going  further,  in  the  production  of  veined 
work,  comb  after  wiping  out  the  lights.  The  rags 
are  used  with  the  assistance  of  the  thumb  nail  to 
wipe  out  the  color  to  imitate  the  sap  or  veined  work 
before  mentioned. 

Allow  the  work  to  stand  over  night  and  apply 
a  glaze  of  water  color  which  must  be  very  thin  and 
transparent.  The  glaze  is  made  from  the  same 
pigments  ground  in  water,  as  are  used  in  oil  on  the 

127 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

graining  coat,  mixed  in  proper  proportions  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect.  The  glazing  coat  may  he 
dispensed  with  and  the  joh  finished  hy  applying 
one  or  two  coats  of  varnish. 

GRAINING  COLORS. 

Light  Oak.— Ground  work  is  white  lead  tinted 
with  raw  sienna  to  the  desired  shade. 

The  graining  color  is  composed  of  raw  and 
burnt  umber,  and  vandyke  brown. 

Dark  Oak.— Ground  work  is  white  lead  with 
golden  ochre,  or  deep  orange  chrome  yellow,  and  a 
little  turkey  red  or  bright  red  oxide. 

The  graining  color  is  composed  of  the  same  pig- 
ments as  in  the  case  of  light  oak,  except  that  the  pro- 
portions are  varied. 

Ash  Graining.— Both  the  ground  work  and  the 
graining  color  is  similar  to  those  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  light  oak. 

Chestnut  Graining  Color.— Ground  work  is 
white  lead,  yellow  ochre  and  orange  chrome  to  pro- 
duce a  decided  yellow,  which  chestnut  graining 
requires.  The  graining  color  is  composed  of  burnt 
umber  with  a  little  vandyke  brown  and  burnt 
sienna. 

Mahogany.— Ground  work  Venetian  red,  and 
white  lead  with  a  little  crimson  lake. 

The  graining  color  is  vandyke  brown. 

128 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

The  graining  of  mahogany  is  much  more  effect- 
ive if  two  shades  of  vandyke  brown  are  used  in  im- 
itating the  light  and  dark  parts  of  the  wood. 

Maple.— Ground  work  similar  to  very  light  oak, 
white  lead  and  raw  sienna,  with  a  graining  color 
of  oxford  ochre,  which  is  dappled,  and  when  dry, 
pass  a  graining  brush  over  the  work  in  a  wavering 
direction,  using  a  mixture  of  umber  and  sienna,  to 
produce  a  softened  grain. 

Walnut.— Use  yellow  ochre,  white  lead  and  um- 
ber for  the  ground  work  and  raw  umber  for  the 
graining  color. 

LUBRICATING  OILS. 

Formerly,  lubricants  were  compounds  of  the 
animal  oils,  such  as  sperm,  lard  and  neatsfoot  oil, 
and  various  vegetable  oils,  as  colza,  cotton  seed, 
olive,  palm,  castor  and  others  of  the  non-drying 
sort. 

Mineral  oil  lubricants  have,  in  great  measure, 
supplanted  all  others  at  the  present  time.  They 
are  much  cheaper  and  less  likely  to  ignite  from  fric- 
tion or  spontaneous  combustion  and  answer  prac- 
tically all  the  requirements,  or,  if  they  do  not,  the 
admixture  of  a  small  proportion  of  animal  or  vege- 
table oil  of  the  nature  required,  imparts  to  them 
the  necessary  quality  of  viscosity  in  which  animal 
and  vegetable  oils  excel. 

129 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Lubricants  have  a  wide  range  to  cover  and  dif- 
fer materially  in  density  or  body,  viscosity  or  ad- 
hesiveness, congealing  points,  flash  points  and  their 
behavior  at  various  fluid  temperatures.  A  good 
oil  should  have  high  viscosity,  congeal  at  a  low  tem- 
perature and  flash  or  ignite  at  a  high  one.  It  should 
not  oxidize  or  volatalize  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

For  compounding  all  the  principal  or  staple 
lubricating  and  machinery  oils,  you  need  only  the 
following : 

Lard  oil,  sperm  oil,  Virginia  black  oil,  or  petro- 
leum residue,  filtered  cylinder  stock,  red  paraffine 
oil,  yellow  paraffine  oil,  neutral  oil,  colorless  or  de- 
bloomed  neutral  oil  and  tallow. 

Ordinary  heavy  lubricating  oil:  Use  Virginia 
black  oil.  If  less  body  is  required,  thin  with  300 
degree  solar  oil  or  kerosene.  Such  an  oil  is  seldom 
subjected  to  very  high  temperatures. 

Cylinder  oil,  such  as  is  sold  under  various 
names,  of  about  standard  quality,  if,  indeed,  there 
be  a  standard,  may  be  filtered  cylinder  stock.  If 
too  thick,  it  may  be  thinned  with  the  addition  of 
paraffine  oil,  using  heat  to  perfect  the  mixture. 

Standard  machinery  oil  is  red  paraffine  oil,  or 
if  a  paler  yellow  oil  is  required,  pale  paraffine  may 
be  used. 

A  suitable  oil  for  light  machinery,  including 
130 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

sewing  machines,  is  pale  paraffine  or  neutral  oil, 
either  yellow  or  white. 

A  light  machinery  oil  of  high  quality  is  made 
by  compoundinj  one  gallon  of  spenn  oil,  with  four 
gallons  of  neutral  or  pale  paraffine  oil.  This  oil 
may  be  made  more  thinly  fluid  by  the  addition  of 
some  kerosene. 

Motor  oil  is  compounded  as  follows : 
4  gallons,  25  degree  paraffine  oil, 
3-4  gallon,  cylinder  stock, 
1-4  gallon,  sperm  oil, 
Gas  engine  oil : 

4  gallons,  red  paraffine  oil, 
1  gallon,  cylinder  stock, 
1-4  gallon,  lard  oil. 
Spindle  oils  are  No.  1  and  No.  2,  bloomless  neu- 
tral oils.     They  are  pure  white  oils  of  light  body 
and  should  stand  a  high  degree  of  heat. 

To  produce  an  extra  quality  of  cylinder  oil,  add 
25  lbs.  of  tallow  melted,  to  each  50  gallons  of  cyl- 
inder stock. 

High  grade  light  cylinder  oil  can  be  made  by 
adding  25  pounds  of  tallow  melted,  to  50  gallons 
of  heavy  paraffine  oil. 

Castor  oil  is  used  as  a  lubricant  where  great 
viscosity  or  adhesiveness  is  demanded  and  price  is 
not  an  object. 

A  good  substitute  for  castor  oil  is  produced  by 

131 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

compounding  25  pounds  of  tallow  to  each  50  gal- 
lons of  No.  2  spindle  or  white  neutral  oil,  and  may 
be  termed  mineral  castor  oil.  If  greater  body  is 
required,  add  50  pounds  of  tallow  to  each  50  gallons 
of  oil  to  be  prepared. 

An  excellent  substitute  for  lard  oil  is  made  by 
mixing  30  gallons  of  28  degree  to  30  degree  par- 
affine  (pale  paraffine),  20  gallons  of  pure  lard  oil, 
and  25  pounds  of  tallow. 

In  adding  tallow  to  any  of  these  oils,  first  melt 
the  tallow  in  5  gallons  of  the  oil  with  which  it  is  to 
be  mixed,  and  when  the  fluid  is  clear  and  the  tallow 
thoroughly  dissolved,  mix  this  with  the  balance  of 
the  oil  to  be  compounded. 

Signal  or  head  light  oil  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses, of  good  quality,  is  produced  by  the  mixture 
of  20  gallons  of  pure  lard  oil,  and  30  gallons  of  300 
degree  mineral  oil,  or  (solar  oil). 

Wagon  greases  are  compounds  of  rosin  soap, 
petroleum  residues,  and  vegetable  tar. 

Patent  Wagon  Grease.— Stir  90  parts  of  pow- 
dered slacked  lime  into  100  parts  of  rosin  oil.  Heat 
the  mixture  and  stir  until  a  uniform  paste-like 
syrup  is  obtained.  Then  heat  550  parts  of  rosin 
oil  one  hour,  with  2  parts  of  calcium  hydrate,  and 
allow  to  cool.  Skim  off  and  add  with  constant  stir- 
ring 10  parts  of  the  rosin  soap,  prepared  according 
to  the  above.  This  grease  may  be  colored  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  any  pigment. 

132 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Another.— Heat  heavy  paraffine  oil,  rosin  oil, 
and  tallow  of  each  60  parts,  and  oleic  acid  30  parts. 
Saponify  the  mixture  by  adding  15  parts  of  pow- 
dered lime  and  2  parts  of  98  degree  soda  lye. 

Powdered  graphite  mixed  with  tallow,  or  heavy 
petroleum  residue  in  the  proportion  of  20  parts  of 
graphite  to  80  parts  of  grease  is  a  useful  lubricant 
for  heavy  work. 

Pure  graphite  is  used  alone  as  a  dry  lubricant. 

Prepare  a  rosin  soap  by  melting  100  pounds  of 
rosin  in  200  pounds  of  soda  lye  of  15  degree Baume, 
heat  until  a  clear  paste  is  formed.  If  a  heavier 
paste  is  desired,  use  60  pounds  of  35  degree  Baume 
soda  lye  to  100  pounds  of  rosin.  Compound  the 
rosin  soap  with  an  equal  amount  of  crude  pine 
tar,  heat,  and  mix  thoroughly.  This  forms  a  suit- 
able axle  grease  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

LINE0LEUM  should  never  be  washed  with 
soap  and  water,  as  this  causes  it  to  become  brittle 
and  crack.  When  to  be  cleaned,  do  it  with  ordi- 
nary prepared  floor  wax,  which  also  protects  the 
surface  and  beautifies  it. 

A  mixture  composed  of  equal  parts  of  linseed 
oil  and  turpentine  is  also  good.  Apply  at  night 
and  remove  with  a  cloth  in  the  morning. 

The  oil  stains  may  be  applied  to  linoleum  to>  re- 
store its  freshness  or  change  the  color.  When  dry, 
a  coating  of  prepared  floor  wax,  or  the  oil,  turpen- 
tine mixture  may  be  applied  as  directed  above. 

133 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

BRONZE  AND  METAL  LACQUER— Dissolve  1  oz. 
of  shella.c  in  8  ozs.  of  alcohol,  and  add  1-4  oz.  gum 
camphor. 

POLISHING  WAX  for  Furniture. -Melt  8  ozs.  of 
white  bees '  wax  with  8  ozs.  of  turpentine,  cool  and 
add  2  ozs.  alcohol. 

Furniture  and  Floor  Wax.— Melt  together,  16 
ozs.  bees'  wax,  1  oz.  Venice  turpentine,  and  16  ozs. 
spirits  of  turpentine.  Allow  to  cool.  Apply  with 
a  cloth  or  rag  and  polish  after  1-4  to  1-2  hour  with 
a  woolen  cloth  or  weighted  floor  brush.  More 
spirits  of  turpentine  can  be  added  if  desired. 

Good  prepared  floor  wax,  such  as  is  in  general 
use  is  made  by  melting  together  3  pounds  of  ceresin 
wax  and  2  pounds  of  Carnauba  wax  in  3  gallons  of 
turpentine.  The  yield  is  about  26  pounds  of  floor 
wax,  costing  about  10  cents  per  pound  and  is  equal 
if  not  superior  to*  bees '  wax  preparations. 

For  restoring  the  color  to  weather  stained  and 
soiled  floors,  apply  a  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
dissolved  in  water,  at  least  2  ozs.  to  the  pint.  This 
will  clean  and  bleach  the  wood. 

BEADY  MIXED  PAINTS. 

In  the  preparation  of  ready  mixed  paints,  it  is 
customary,  as  mentioned  before,  to  prepare  a  suit- 
able base  of  white  and  to  add  proper  amounts  of 
prepared  stainers  to  produce  the  required  tints. 

134 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

For  dark  colors,  such  as  the  reds,  greens,  and 
browns,  a  suitable  base  of  dark  pigments  is  made 
and  thinned  in  the  regular  way. 

Yacht  white,  ready  mixed  paint:  mix  thor- 
oughly and  after  mixing  strain. 

25  pounds  of  white  lead  (in  oil), 

25  pounds  of  white  zinc  (  in  oil), 

4  gallons  raw  linseed  oil, 

1  pint  turpentine, 

1  pint  liquid  dryer. 

Add  a  trifle  of  Prussian  blue  to  produce  a  pure 
white.  This  paint  is  suitable  for  all  exteriors,  and 
exposed  places  and  stands  moisture  and  salt  air  to 
a  remarkable  degree. 

To  prepare  inside  white  of  the  same  quality, 
change  the  4  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil  to  a  mixture 
of  2  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  2  gallons  of  tur- 
pentine. 

One  pint  of  solution,  No.  1,  mentioned  under 
ready  mixed  paints,  may  be  added  to  hold  up  the 
pigments  and  make  the  paint  work  more  smoothly, 
without  detriment. 

Ordinary  outside  white  ready  mixed  paint: 

12  pounds  of  white  zinc,  (in  oil), 
4  pounds  of  white  lead,  (in  oil), 

2  pounds  of  Paris  white,  (dry), 
1 1-2  gallons  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-8  gallon  liquid  dryer, 

1-2  gallon  solution,  No.  1. 

135 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

For  inside  white  of  the  same  quality,  let  the 
thinners  be  1-2  raw  linseed  oil,  and  1-2  turpentine, 
instead  of  all  oil. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  various  ready  mixed 
tinted  paints,  first  make  a  base  of  white,  which  will 
answer  for  outside  white. 

Base  white  number  one  is  prepared  by  mixing 
thoroughly : 

30  pounds  of  white  lead,  (in  oil), 

30  pounds  of  white  zinc,  (in  oil), 

4  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 

1-4  gallon  of  turpentine, 

1-2  gallon  of  solution  No.  1, 

1-2  ounce  of  prussian  blue,  (in  oil), 

1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 
If  too  heavy,  thin  by  adding  a  little  more  raw 
linseed  oil. 

Base  white,  number  two  is  made  by  mixing  as 
above : 

10  pounds  of  white  lead,  (in  oil), 

10  pounds  of  white  zinc,  (in  oil)* 

10  pounds  of  Paris  white, 

2  1-2  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 

1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer, 

1-2  gallon  of  solution  No.  1. 
Thin  with  benzine  if  too  heavy.     The  Paris  white 
must  be  finely  bolted  and  allowed  to  soak  in  the 
linseed  oil  before  adding  the  other  pigments. 

136 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulas. 

Coloring  Matter: 

Black: 

50  pounds  of  lamp  black  (in  oil), 
3  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

Red: 

50  pounds  of  bright  red  oxide,  (in  oil), 

7  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

Yellow : 

50  pounds  of  French  ochre,  (in  oil), 

8  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

Lemon : 

50  pounds  of  chrome  yellow,  lemon,  (in  oil), 
5  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

Green : 

50  pounds  of  chrome  green,  med.,  (in  oil), 
5  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-4  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

137 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Blue: 

50  pounds  of  prussian  blue,  (in  oil), 
10  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-2  gallon  of  turpentine, 
1-2  gallon  of  liquid  dryer. 

These  staining  colors  are  in  reality,  ready 
mixed  solid  colors,  and  can  be  converted  into  ready 
mixed  paints  of  the  same  shade  by  adding  an 
amount  of  barytes  (in  oil),  equal  to  the  amount  of 
color  used  and  doubling  the  amount  of  liquids,  with 
the  addition  of  solution  No.  1—1-8  the  amount  of 
raw  oil  used,  or  if  they  are  to  be  cheapened,  1-4  the 
amount  of  the  oil  used  may  be  added  of  solution. 
No.  1. 

Light  Lead  Ready  Mixed.— Tint  white  with 
black,  ochre  and  lemon  color.  Medium  lead,  black 
and  ochre.  Dark  lead,  black  and  ochre. 
Light,  Medium,  and  Dark  Drab.— Ochre,  red  and 
black  in  proper  proportions  to  give  the  respective 
shades. 

Quaker  Drab.— Ochre,  black  and  green. 

Stone.— Ochre  and  black. 

Grey.— Ochre  and  black. 

Light  Brown.— Red  and  black. 

Dark  Brown.— Same  as  yellow  staining  color, 
substituting  burnt  umber,  (in  oil),  for  French 
ochre. 

138 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Light  Buff.— Ochre  and  red. 

Buff.— Ochre  and  red. 

Colonial  Yellow.— Lemon,  ochre,  red  and  black. 

Dark  Straw.— Ochre,  green  and  red. 

Light  Straw.— Lemon,  green  and  ochre. 

Cream.— Ochre  and  lemon. 

Tan  and  Light  Tan.— Ochre,  red,  lemon  and 
black. 

Spruce.— Ochre  and  red. 

Salmon.— Ochre  and  red. 

Lavender.— Ochre,  red  and  trace  of  blue  and 
black. 

Light  Olive.— Ochre,  green  and  black,  with 
blue  and  red,  a  trifle. 

Medium  Olive.— Ochre,  green  and  black. 

Dark  Olive.— Green,  black  and  a  little  blue. 

Apple  Green.— Lemon  and  green. 

Pea  Green.— Lemon  and  green. 

Bronze  Green.— This  ready  mixed  color  is  of 
great  value  to  the  painter  and,  therefore,  a  detailed 
formula  is  appended : 

25  pounds  of  ochre  staining  color, 
25  pounds  of  chrome  green,  (in  oil), 
6  pounds  of  black  staining  color, 

1  pound  of  blue  staining  color, 

2  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
1-8  gallon  liquid  dryer. 

Medium  Green  Stone.— Green,  ochre,  black,  and 
lemon. 

139 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Maroon.— Same  as  red  staining  color,  substi- 
tuting- Indian  red  for  oxide,  and  darkening  this  with 
a  little  black. 
Vermillion : 

50  pounds  of  good  American  vermillion. 
25  pounds  of  red  lead. 
25  pounds  of  Paris  white, 
8  gallons  raw  linseed  oil, 
1  gallon  liquid  dryer, 
1  gallon  turpentine, 
1  gallon  of  solution,  No.  1. 
Light  Blue.— White,  tinted  with  blue. 
Dark  Blue.— White,  with  more  blue. 
From  the  foregoing  it  is  understood  that  with 
the  white  base,  before  mentioned,  and  the  staining 
colors  prepared  as  directed,  a  simple  tinting  of  the 
base,  with  the  colors  indicated,  in  proper  propor- 
tion will  give  practically  any  of  the  many  tints  re- 
quired, and  the  dark  colors  are  formed  from  the 
tinting  colors  themselves. 

FLEXIBLE  PAINT. 

Slice  2  1-2  pounds  of  good  yellow  soap  and  dis- 
solve it  in  1  1-2  gallons  of  boiling  water  and  thor- 
oughly mix  the  solution  while  hot  with  3  1-2  gallons 
of  good  oil  paint.     Used  to  paint  on  canvas. 

CHEAP  WHITE  PAINT  FOR  OUTSIDE  WORK. 
Slack  1  1-2  pounds  of  lime  in  just  enough  water 

140 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

to  do  this,  add  6  1-2  pounds  of  skimmed  milk.  Add 
1  pint  linseed  oil  and  6  pounds  of  whiting  or  Paris 
white. 

COATING  FOR  BLACKBOARDS. 

To  one  quart  orange  shellac,  add  1-2  pound  of 
finest  powdered  emery,  1-2  pound  of  ivory  black, 
and  a  little  ultramarine  blue.  Apply  three  coats 
and  rub  when  dry  with  fine  sand  paper. 

Liquid  Slateing  for  Blackboards. 
Shellac,  8  ozs. ;  lamp  black,  1  1-2  ozs. ;  ultrama- 
rine blue,  2  1-2  ozs. ;  powdered  rotton  stone,  4  ozs. ; 
powdered  pumice  stone,  6  ozs.;  alcohol,  4  pints. 
Dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol,  and  the  other  in- 
gredients and  mix  them  well  together.  Apply 
quickly  with  a  flat  varnish  brush. 

Another : 

1-4  gallon  Japan  dryer, 

1-8  gallon  turpentine, 

1-2  pound  finest  emery, 

1-2  pound  drop  black,  (in  oil), 

2  ozs.  ultramarine  blue,  (in  oil). 

Apply  in  the  usual  manner.  In  place  of  pow- 
dered emery,  1-2  pound  of  powdered  pumice  or  1-4 
pound  of  rotton  stone  may  be  substituted. 

FIREPROOF  PAINTS — Repeated  coatings  of 
liquid  silicate  of  soda  will  render  the  substances 

141 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

coated,  fireproof.  Let  the  final  coat  be  a  thin  wash 
of  lime  which  unites  with  the  silicate  of  soda,  form- 
ing silicate  of  lime,  an  insoluble  substance. 

No.  2. 

Mix  80  pounds  of  powdered  silex,  40  lbs.  of 
China  clay  and  20  lbs.  of  air  slacked  lime,  intimate- 
ly together,  with  60  lbs.  of  liquid  silicate  of  soda. 
Thin  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  paint.  Col- 
ors can  be  added,  such  as  the  ochres,  umbers,  earth 
reds  and  siennas.    Two  coats  should  be  given. 

No.  3. 

70  lbs.  of  zinc  white,  40  lbs.  of  air  slacked  lime, 
50  lbs.  of  white  lead  and  10  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 

First  mix  the  zinc  and  lime  with  sufficient  lin- 
seed oil  to  make  a  thick  ^paste.  Then  add  1  gallon 
4>f  heavy  liquid  silicate  of  soda,  together  with  the 
white  lead  and  sulphate  of  zinc.  Stir  well.  This 
is  white.  Colors  can  be  made  as  in  the  previous 
cases.     Thin  with  water,  if  too  thick. 

TRANSPARENT  PAINTS  FOR  GLASS.— For  blue, 
prussian  blue;  red,  crimson  lake;  yellow,  Indian 
yellow;  brown,  burnt  sienna;  black,  lamp  black; 
with  mixtures  of  the  above  for  other  colors. 

Rub  them  in  a  size  composed  of  Venice  turpen- 
tine 2  parts,  and  turpentine,  1  part. 

Aniline  dyes  dissolved  in  shellac  varnish  can 

142 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

be  used  in  the  same  way,  but  are  more  apt  to  fade. 
Aniline  colors  dissolved  in  linseed  oil  or  tur- 
pentine (the  oil  soluble  variety  of  aniline)  may  be 
added  to  thin  varnish  to  produce  transparent  paints 
for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

PATENT  DRYER. 

This  is  a  paste  dryer,  composed  of  sugar  of  lead 
and  litharge,  as  a  rule,  mixed  in  varying  propor- 
tions with  white  lead  or  Paris  white;  sometimes 
sulphate  of  zinc  is  also  added,  the  whole  being 
ground  in  boiled  linseed  oil. 

Calcined  sugar  of  lead,  1-2  oz.  to  the  gallon  of 
paint  is  the  most  satisfactory  solid  dryer. 

EXCELLENT  FRENCH  POLISH.— For  carved  work, 
furniture  and  cabinet  work. 

1  gallon  alcohol, 

3  ozs.  powdered  copal  (Zanzibar  or 
Kauri  gum), 

2  ozs.  gum  Arabic, 
6  ozs.  shellac. 

Strain — coat  the  articles  and  polish  in  the  usu- 
al way. 

BLACK  POLISH  FOR  IRON  AND  STEEL.— Boil  1 
part  of  sulphuric  acid  with  10  parts  of  turpentine. 
Coat  the  article  with  solution  and  hold  over  an 
alcohol  flame  until  the  black  polish  appears. 

143 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

PARAFPINE  PAINT For  use  on  surfaces  ex- 
posed to  dampness,  damp  walls,  etc.  Dissolve  1 
part  of  paraffine  wax  in  2  or  3  parts  of  heavy  coal 
tar  oil,  with  moderate  heat.  Use  the  mixture 
warm. 

PAINTING  ON  ZINC — This  process  is  made  much 
easier  by  coating  the  zinc  surface,  first,  with  a  solu- 
tion composed  of  1  part  each  chloride  of  copper, 
nitrate  of  copper  and  sal  ammoniac  in  64  parts  of 
water  and  1  part  hydrochloric  acid.  After  12 
hours,  paint  in  the  ordinary  way. 

METALLIC  PAINTS  for  general  use  can  be  made 
from  simple  mixture  of  raw  linseed  oil,  dryer,  and 
suitable  pigments  in  the  dry  state  or  ground  in  oil. 

In  general,  the  proportion  of  dryer  to  each  gal- 
lon of  oil  is  1  to  10,  except  where  white  lead  is  used, 
in  which  case,  very  little  dryer  is  necessary. 

Metallic  paints  made  from  the  dry  mineral  col- 
ors require  about  6  pounds  of  pigment  to  each 
gallon  of  oil.  If  these  colors  ground  in  oil  are  used, 
a  little  more  is  usually  required. 

Cheap  Metallic  Paint.— Mix  2  1-2  parts  ceiling 
varnish,  1  part  raw  oil,  1  part  benzine,  1-2  part 
dryer.  To  each  gallon  of  this  mixture  add  5  lbs. 
of  dry  metallic,  Venetian  red,  ochre,  or  other  earth 
colors.  If  graphite  is  used,  only  4  pounds  to  the 
gallon  is  required,  if  the  graphite  is  pure. 

144 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Red  Metallic— This  gives  a  general  idea  of  the 
compounding  of  cheap  paints  in  general,  which 
contain  a  mineral  pigment  base,  such  as  ochre,  Ven- 
etian red,  metallic  brown  and  like  substances. 

25  lbs.  Venetian  red,  dry, 

10  lbs.  Paris  white,  dry, 

2  1-2  gallons  ceiling  varnish, 

1  gallon  raw  oil, 

1-2  gallon  liquid  dryer, 

1-4  gallon  solution  No.  2  (under  R.M. 
paints). 

In  the  production  of  a  high-grade  metallic  paint 
which  will  resist  atmospheric  conditions  for  a 
lengthy  period  and  thoroughly  protect  the  metal 
to  which  it  is  applied  from  corrosior,  better  mate- 
rials must  be  used  and  the  paint  will  of  necessity 
cost  more  to  produce. 

Such  a  paint  can  be  made  as  the  following,  to 
fulfill  the  foregoing  conditions : 

75   pounds   of  high-grade   Venetian 
red, 
5  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
3  gallons  of  kauri  mixing  varnish, 

1  gallon  of  liquid  dryer, 

2  gallons  of  turpentine, 

1  gallon  of  solution,  No.  1. 

Other  colors  are  produced  by  substituting 
French  ochre,  metallic  brown,  or  other  oxide  of 

145 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

good  quality,  and  which  must  be  finely  ground. 
Colors  ground  in  oil  before  mixing  should  be  used 
as  dry  colors  do  not  give  as  good  results.  If  the 
paint  is  to  be  used  at  once,  the  solution  need  not  be 
added.  Finally,  benzine  may  be  substituted  in 
place  of  turpentine,  without  affecting  the  wearing 
qualities  of  the  paint.  Such  a  mixture  will  stand 
a  high  temperature  very  well. 

MACHINE  PAINT  for  covering  castings  and  vari- 
ous machines  is  frequently  required.  It  should  re- 
sist grease  and  stand  a  certain  degree  of  heat  with- 
out showing  defects.  Such  as  the  following  steel 
color. 

25  pounds  of  French  zinc,  (in  oil), 
1  pound  of  lamp  black,  (in  oil), 
5  gallons  of  good  Japan  dryer,  (gum 
base) . 

To  reduce  the  body,  if  too  heavy,  add  a  little 
turpentine. 

Paste  paints  to  be  used  on  machinery  and  vari- 
ous iron  and  steel  articles  are  made  from  a  base 
consisting  mainly  of  barytes  and  Paris  white,  with 
the  addition  of  1-4  to  1-3  of  white  lead  and  zinc,  col- 
ored to  suit.  The  pigments  should  be  ground  in  a 
mixture  of  1-2  raw  linseed  oil  and  1-2  liquid  diyer 
as  such  paints  are  used  flat. 

Various  asphaltum  varnishes  are  largely  used 
as  metallic  paints,  and  if  properly  prepared,  give 

146 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

good  results.  Ordinary  asphaltum  paint  is  simply 
asplialtum  dissolved  in  benzine,  or  melted  and  re- 
duced to  a  paint  or  varnish  body  with  this  diluent. 
Such  a  paint  has  little  virtue,  except  that  it  is  very 
cheap. 

Good  asphaltum  paint  should  contain  plenty  of 
linseed  oil,  which  adds  greatly  to  its  weather  re- 
sisting and  protective  qualities.  Ordinary  asphalt- 
um prepared  for  use  may  be  much  improved  by  the 
addition  of  2  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  1-4  gal- 
lon of  good  liquid  dryer  to  each  10  gallons  of  the 
paint  in  question. 

POLISHING  AGENTS. 

Furniture  Polish.— Linseed  oil,  6  fluid  ounces; 
alcohol,  3  fluid  ounces ;  shellac,  one  ounce ;  butter  of 
antimony,  1  1-2  fluid  ounce ;  hydrochloric  acid,  1-2 
ounce;  turpentine,  5  fluid  ounces. 

Dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol,  and  mix  with 
the  linseed  oil  and  turpentine.  Then,  having  mixed 
the  hydrochloric  acid  and  butter  of  antimony,  add 
them  to  the  mixture  and  shake  thoroughly.  Apply 
with  a  soft  cloth. 

Cabinet  Work  Polish.— Mix  1-2  pint  of  raw  lin- 
seed oil,  1-2  pint  of  ale,  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  1 
oz.  of  muriatic  acid  (commercial),  shake  well  be- 
fore using.     Apply  with  a  woolen  cloth. 

147 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Egg  Shell  Polish.— Dissolve  3  parts  white  shel- 
lac, 1  part  mastic  and  1  part  sandarac  in  40  parts 
of  alcohol.     Apply  with  a  rag. 

Furniture  Polish.— Mix  4  ozs.  shellac  varnish, 
16  ozs.  raw  linseed  oil,  2  ozs.  turpentine  and  2  ozs. 
bees '  wax.  Dissolve  the  wax  in  the  oil  and  turpen- 
tine by  the  aid  of  a  little  heat.  When  cool,  add  the 
shellac. 

Polishing  Fine  Wood  Work.— Mix  shellac  cut 
in  grain  alcohol,  2  parts,  and  raw  linseed  oil,  1 
part.  Shake  well  before  using.  Rub  briskly  until 
hard  and  bright. 

Marble  Polish.— Mix  2  ozs.  soda  with  1  oz.  pum- 
ice stone  and  1  oz.  chalk,  both  finely  ground,  and 
enough  water  to  make  a  paste.  Rub  marble  well 
with  this  and  wash  with  soap  and  water.  A  fine 
polish  should  result.  Bad  stains  can  be  removed 
by  the  use  of  dilute  muriatic  acid  rubbed  with 
pumice. 

Wax  Finish  for  Wood.— Boil  4  ozs.  of  white 
wax  with  1  oz.  of  pearlash  in  1  quart  of  water.  Stir 
thoroughly  while  boiling,  and  until  cold.  Apply 
with  a  paint  brush  and  rub  until  dry. 

Furniture  Polish.— Pale  paraffine  oil,  add  a  few 
drops  of  mirbane  oil  to  disguise  the  odor.  Apply 
with  a  soft  rag  and  rub  vigorously.   The  addition 

148 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

of  one  pound  of  paraffine  wax  to  each  gallon  of  oil 
will  improve  the  polish. 

Floor  Paints  are  not  as  fully  understood  by  the 
painter  as  they  should  be.  Ordinary  paint,  made 
with  a  strictly  linseed  oil  base,  does  not  dry  suffi- 
ciently hard,  or  present,  when  dry,  the  proper  ap- 
pearance or  the  necessary  surface.  A  special  paint 
is,  therefore,  necessary.  The  colors  are  usually 
those  which  are  dull  and  neutral  in  tone  and  such 
shades  as  do  not  readily  show  dust  or  imperfec- 
tions. The  most  satisfactory  pigment  base  is  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  of  white  lead  and  white  zinc 
ground  in  oil.  The  liquid  base  is  made  by  mixing 
the  following : 

3  gallons  boiled  linseed  oil, 

6  gallons  of  quick  drying  gum  varnish, 

3  gallons  of  Japan  dryer, 

3  gallons  of  turpentine  or  benzine, 

60  pounds  of  white  lead,  (in  oil), 

60  pounds  of  white  zinc,  (in  oil). 

Dark  yellow  floor  paint  is  made  by  adding  to  the 
above : 

20  pounds  of  red  staining  color, 
40  pounds  of  ochre  staining  color, 
60  pounds  of  green  staining  color. 

Staining  colors  mentioned  under  ready  mixed 
paint  formulae. 

149 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Dark  grey  floor  paint: 

5  pounds  of  black  staining  color, 
5  pounds  of  lemon  staining  color. 

Light  yellow  floor  paint : 

20  pounds  of  ochre  staining  color, 
30  pounds  of  lemon  staining  color. 

Lead  floor  paint  is  similar  to  dark  grey  with 
more  staining  color  added. 

Eed  floor  paint :  use  Indian  red  in  place  of  white 
lead  and  white  zinc,  otherwise,  proceed  the  same  as 
preparing  the  base. 

The  addition  of  4  pounds  of  blue  staining  color 
will  improve  the  shade. 

Dust  color  floor  paint : 

2  pounds  of  black  staining  color, 
4  pounds  of  red  staining  color, 
20  pounds  of  ochre  staining  color, 
10  pounds  of  green  staining  color. 
In  a  general  way,  prepare  the  liquid  base  as  di- 
rected and  add  sufficient  white  lead  and  white  zinc 
with  coloring  pigments  to  give  the  required  shade, 
and  body  which  must  be  rather  thin. 

Three  gallons  of  solution  may  be  added  to  the 
liquid  base  formulae  if  the  paint  is  to  be  cheapened. 

POLISHING  CARVED  WORK.  — Dissolve  1  part  of 
150 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

shellac  and  1  part  or  rosin  in  9  parts  of  alcohol. 
Apply  warm  and  polish. 

POLISHING  POWDER  FOR  GLASS.— Moisten  cal- 
cined magnesia  with  benzine  and  use  with  a  rag. 
This  mixture  should  be  used  quite  thin. 

PAINT  AND  VARNISH  REMOVERS. 

It  is  often  necessary  or  desirable  to  remove  old 
paint  or  varnish  before  applying  new. 

In  extreme  cases  it  may  be  burned  off  with  the 
assistance  of  a  painter's  torch,  which  renders  the 
paint  or  varnish  soft  enough  to  be  scraped  off  with 
a  putty  knife. 

When  the  natural  beauty  of  the  wood  is  to  be 
retained,  and  the  new  coating  is  to  be  varnished, 
this  process  cannot  be  used.  In  such  cases,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  some  liquid  solvent,  which 
dissolves  or  softens  the  oils  and  resins  which  bind 
the  paint  or  varnish  coatings.  Strong  alkalies  and 
some  of  the  best  or  most  active  liquid  solvents  will 
do  this  more  or  less  satisfactorily. 

No.l. 

A  wash  of  26  degree  ammonia  water  will  very 
quickly  soften  paint  or  varnish  so  that  it  can  be 
readily  scraped  or  washed  off. 

A  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda,  or  caustic 
potash,  or  carbonate  of  soda  will  answer  the  same 
purpose. 

151 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Fobmulae. 

When  paint  or  varnish  has  been  removed  by 
means  of  an  alkali,  the  wood  should  be  afterwards 
washed  with  dilute  vinegar  to  neutralize  the  alkali 
and  prevent  further  action  on  the  new  coating  to 
be  applied. 

No.  2. 

A  mixture  much  used,  is  composed  of  pearlash, 
1  part,  and  lime,  3  parts.  Slack  the  lime  with 
water  and  add  the  pearlash,  making  a  cream  the 
consistency  of  paint.    Apply  with  a  brush. 

No.  3. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  2  pounds;  lime,  1-4  pound 
dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water.  Allow  to  remain 
on  the  work  15  or  20  minutes.  Scrape  off  the 
softened  paint  and  wash  the  surface  with  weak 
vinegar. 

Recently,  there  has  appeared  on  the  market 
various  new  liquid  and  paste  paint  and  varnish  re- 
movers of  decided  merit,  and  possessing  none  of 
the  objectionable  features  of  the  old  style  alkaline 
removers,  such  as  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  ammonia. 
These  newer  preparations  are  almost  entirely  free 
from  odor  and  have  no  caustic  action  on  the  skin  or 
clothes,  which  is  a  marked  advantage.  They  are 
composed  of  such  substances  as  readily  and  quickly 
soften  and  dissolve  the  resins  and  solidified  oil  or 

152 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

diy  varnish  and  the  oil  binder  used  in  the  various 
paints. 

The  principal  solvents  used  are  analine  oil, 
amyl  acetate  and  fusil  oil,  in  connection  with  ben- 
zine. The  paste  removers  can  be  made  from  ani- 
line oil  to  which  is  added  sufficient  starch  paste  to 
give  the  finished  product  a  thin,  pasty  consistence. 
Paste  removers  usually  contain  potash. 

For  general  use,  a  liquid  remover  is  best  and 
may  be  made  as  follows : 

No.  1. 
Make  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  aniline  oil  and 
benzine:  or  compound  one  part  of  aniline  oil,  one 
part  of  amyl  acetate  and  two  parts  of  benzine. 

Compound  one  part  of  aniline  oil,  one  part  of 
fusel  oil  and  one  to  two  parts  of  benzine.  Aniline 
oil,  if  purchased  in  quantity,  (the  commercial 
grade)  can  be  bought  cheaply  and  such  mixtures  as 
will  rapidly  and  energetically  remove  paint  or  var- 
nish can  be  produced  at  from  50  cents  to  $1.00  per 
gallon,  depending  upon  the  quantity  of  raw  mate- 
rials purchased  at  one  time.  Such  mixtures  usual- 
ly retail  at  $2.50  per  gallon.  With  the  above  sug- 
gestions, the  reader  should  have  no  difficulty  in  pro- 
ducing his  own  preparations  at  a  material  saving, 
or  on  such  a  basis  as  to  be  sold  very  profitably. 

153 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

REMOVERS  AND  PRESERVATIVES. 

To  Remove  Spots  from  Varnished  Surfaces.— 
In  general,  rub  the  spots  carefully  with  a  rag 
moistened  slightly  with  a  mixture  containing  equal 
parts  of  raw  linseed  oil,  turpentine  and  alcohol. 
"When  the  spots  disappear,  polish  with  ordinary 
blotting  paper. 

To  clean  paint,  use  a  piece  of  flannel  dampened 
with  warm  water  and  dipped  in  dry  whiting.  Ap- 
ply to  the  painted  surface  and  rub,  which  will  re- 
move grease  and  dirt  readily. 

To  Remove  Spots  From  Ceilings,  Caused  By 
Rain  or  Moisture.— Take  unslacked  lime,  dilute 
with  alcohol  and  paint  the  spots  with  it.  The  lime 
forms  a  layer  through  which  the  stains  will  not 
again  appear. 

Removing  Stains  From  Marble.— Boil  together 
for  15  minutes,  1-4  pound  of  soap,  1-4  pound  of 
whiting  and  1  ounce  of  washing  soda.  Rub  this 
over  the  marble  while  hot.  "Wash  off  the  next  day 
and  polish  with  a  coarse  flannel. 

To  remove  grease  and  stains  from  boards,  use  a 
paste  of  clay  and  water  spread  over  the  surface  to 
be  cleaned.  A  mixture  of  5  parts  fuller 's  earth  and 
1  part  each,  of  pearl  ash  and  soft  soap  boiled  to- 
gether with  enough  water  to  make  a  paste,  applied 
and  allowed  to  remain  a  few  hours,  then  washed  off 
with  soap,  will  remove  dirt  and  grease  readily. 

154 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Ink  can  be  removed  with  muriatic  acid.  After 
applying  the  acid,  wash  with  water. 

To  Preserve  Iron.— Clean  the  iron  from  rust 
and  go  over  the  surface  with  hot,  raw  linseed  oil,  or, 
if  the  article  is  small,  heat  it  before  applying  the 
oil.  Apply  the  paint  on  this  as  soon  as  the  oil  be- 
comes tacky.  Wood  exposed  to  dampness  can  be 
treated  in  the  same  way. 

To  remove  rust:  use  a  mixture  of  paraffine  oil 
and  powdered  emery,  rubbed  on  with  a  cloth. 

A  protection  to  the  iron  is  given  by  applying  a 
varnish  made  of  1  part  of  paraffine  wax  dissolved 
in  15  parts  of  benzine. 

To  Remove  Iron  Rust.— Mix  salt  with  lemon 
juice  and  rub  on  the  rusty  article.  Soak  the  article 
to  be  cleaned  in  kerosene  oil  or  wrap  it  in  rags 
saturated  with  that  liquid.  Allow  the  oil  plenty  of 
time  to  loosen  the  rust,  at  least  one  or  two  days. 
Then  scour  the  rust  spots  with  brick  dust  or  pum- 
ice stone.  If  much  rust  is  to  be  removed,  use 
hot  commercial  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  water, 
to  which  add  salt.  Scour  well,  and  wash  with  clean 
boiling  water  and  polish,  if  desired,  with  some 
sweet  oil  applied  to  a  flannel  rag. 

PAINT  BRUSHES. 
Every  paint  shop  should  be  supplied  with  a 

155 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

brush  keeper,  which  is  a  receptacle  into  which 
brushes  may  be  so  suspended  that  their  bristles  are 
immersed  while  their  points  are  not  allowed  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The 
liquid  in  the  brush  keeper  may  be  raw  linseed  oil, 
thin  varnish,  kerosene  or  water.  In  no  case  must 
the  bristles  be  immersed  above  the  binding.  Flat 
brushes  in  which  the  bristles  have  loosened,  may 
be  tightened  by  being  squeezed  in  a  vice  where  the 
wire  fastening  squeezes  the  bristles.  New  brushes 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  damp  place  before  use,  as 
both  the  bristles  and  wood  will  shrink  in  a  warm, 
dry  atmosphere.  Brushes  should  be  cleaned  before 
being  used.  Work  out  the  dust  and  loose  hairs  by 
whirling  the  brush  back  and  forth  through  the 
hands.  When  free  from  loose  hairs,  dip  the  brush 
in  water  a  few  minutes,  shake  out  the  water,  and, 
when  dry,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Remember  that  twisted  bristles  and  misshapen 
ends  cause  the  paint  or  varnish  to  cover  poorly  and 
will  deface  the  surface  with  brush  marks. 

Brush  marks  are  frequently  the  result  of  poorly 
applied  under  coatings.  Each  coat  requires  par- 
ticular care  and  the  surface  must  be  properly  pre- 
pared before  you  begin.  If  the  paint  or  filler  is  too 
heavy,  brush  marks  and  imperfections  are  almost 
certain  to  show.  Better  have  the  under  coats  some- 
what thin,  therefore,  that  they  may  flow  out  or  be 
brushed  out  smoothly. 

156 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Varnish  should  not  be  rubbed  smooth,  but 
should  be  allowed  to  flow  out.  Use  the  brush 
enough  to  make  it  even  and  to  prevent  it  running 
or  sagging.  If  too  thick,  thin  your  varnish  with 
turpentine. 

Paint  Brushes,  Care  of— The  bristles  of  a  brush 
frequently  come  out  because  the  brush  is  not  used 
in  the  kind  of  liquid  it  is  intended  for.  For  dis- 
temper colors  and  all  water  paints,  use  a  shel- 
lac or  cement  set  brush.  For  oil  paints  and  var- 
nishes, glue  and  cement  set  brushes  are.  best; 
while  for  shellacs  and  spirit  varnishes,  cement  or 
glue  set  brushes  can  be  also  used.  No  brush  should 
be  placed  in  lime,  alkaline,  or  acid  solutions  to  the 
extent  of  allowing  such  substances  to  attack  the 
composition  used  to  hold  the  bristles  in  place,  nor 
should  a  brush  be  allowed  to  be  immersed  in  water 
up  to  the  butt  for  any  length  of  time. 

Paint  Brushes,  To  Clean— Suspend  the  brush  in 
a  vessel  containing  a  solution  of  1  part  washing 
soda,  dissolved  in  3  parts  water.  Do  not  immerse 
the  butt  of  the  brush  in  the  solution.  Allow  to  re- 
main in  the  solution  several  hours.  The  paint  will 
become  so  soft  as  to  be  readily  washed  out  wilh  soap 
and  water,  no  matter  how  hard  it  has  become. 

Kerosene  oil  is  an  excellent  medium  in  which 
to  clean  brushes  which  have  been  used  in  paint,  or 
varnish.    Also  to  keep  brushes  soft,  immerse  the 

157 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

bristles  in  this  liquid.  The  bristles  will  remain 
soft  and  pliable,  whereas,  benzine  used  for  the 
same  purpose  tends  to  make  them  harsh. 

WATER  STAINS  FOR  WOOD. 

Oak.— Make  a  solution  of  annatto,  picric  acid  or 
quercitron  and  wash  the  wood  with  the  solution. 

Antique  Oak.— Dissolve  1  part  of  permangan- 
ate of  potash  in  30  parts  of  water,  wash  the  wood 
successively,  after  each  coat  is  dry,  until  the  de- 
sired shade  is  obtained,  then  wash  with  clean  water. 

Walnut.— Use  the  same  solution  as  for  antique 
oak,  and  when  the  required  shade  is  produced  after 
washing  with  water,  go  over  the  surface  with  a 
solution  of  acetate  of  iron. 

Dark  Mahogany.— Digest  in  4  ozs.  of  pure  grain 
or  wood  alcohol,  1  drachm  of  powdered  alkanet 
root,  2  drachms  of  aloes  and  2  drachms  of  dragon's 
blood.  Shake  occasionally.  After  standing  2  or  3 
days,  filter  or  pour  off  the  clear  liquid  free  from 
sediment.  First  treat  the  wood  to  be  stained  with 
a  thin  coat  of  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  when  dry,  ap- 
ply the  stain  until  the  desired  color  is  produced. 

Light  Mahogany.— Use  the  same  stain  as  for 
dark  mahogany,  but  apply  less  stain  or  dilute  it 
with  alcohol. 

158 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Mahogany.— After  rubbing  the  wood  with  di- 
lute nitric  acid,  and  allowing  it  to  dry,  apply  with 
a  soft  brush,  a  stain  composed  of  1  oz.  of  dragon's 
blood,  1  pint  of  alcohol  and  1  oz.  carbonate  of  soda 
dissolved  in  4  ozs.  of  water.  Stain  until  the  shade 
is  as  desired.  Be  sure  to  have  no  sediment  in  the 
stain. 

Cherry  Stain.— Boil  2  ozs.  of  annatto  in  one 
quart  of  soft  water.  When  dissolved,  add  1-4  oz. 
of  caustic  potash;  allow  this  to  dissolve,  after 
which,  it  is  ready  for  use.  Coat  the  wood  in  the 
usual  way. 

Grey  Stain.— Apply  a  wash  made  of  1  part  of 
nitrate  of  silver  in  50  parts  of  water.  Next,  wash 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  finally,  with 
ammonia  water.  Allow  to  diy  and  finish  as  de- 
sired. 

Maple  Stain.— Dissolve  2  ozs.  of  orange  shellac, 
1-2  oz.  of  pearl  ash  and  1-4  oz.  dragon's  blood  in 
1  pint  of  grain  or  wood  alcohol. 

Ebony  Stain.— Wash  the  wood  repeatedly  with 
a  concentrated  solution  of  actate  of  iron. 

No.  2. 

Wash  with  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  2  ozs. 
of  sulphate  of  iron  in  one  pint  of  hot  water,  after 
several  applications,  when  diy,  apply  a  wash  made 

159 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

by  dissolving  1  oz.  extract  of  logwood  in  1  pint  of 
hot  water  to  which  a  little  alum  is  added. 

No.  3. 
Into  1  quart  of  boiling  water  put  1  1-2  ozs.  of 
copperas  and  1-2  oz.  extract  of  logwood.  Apply- 
hot.  When  dry,  coat  the  surface  with  a  solution 
made  of  2  ozs.  of  steel  filings  in  1-2  pint  of  strong 
vinegar. 

WATER  AND  SPIRIT  STAINS  FOR  WOOD. 

Blue.— Indigo  in  water. 

Blue  Black.— Extract  of  Logwood  dissolved  in 
alcohol  to  which  sufficient  Indigo  is  added. 

Brown.— Mix  equal  parts  of  solution  of  Log- 
wood extract  and  solution  of  saffron,  dilute  with 
alcohol  and  add  some  tin  solution. 

Brownish  Red.— Mix  a  decoction  of  Brazil 
wood  with  some  solution  of  tin. 

Crimson.— Solution  of  cochineal  in  alcohol. 
Dragon 's  blood  dissolved  in  alcohol  gives  more  of 
a  mahogany  tone. 

Dark  Grey.— Use  first,  extract  of  gall  nuts,  then, 
solution  sulphate  of  iron,  and,  finally,  dilute  solu- 
tion of  Indigo. 

Greenish.— Extract  of  saffron  with  addition  of 
some  Indigo  solution. 

160 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Green.— Same  as  above,  with  more  Indigo. 

Greenish  Grey.— Decoction  of  gall  nuts,  sul- 
phate of  iron  and  fustic  with  some  Indigo  solu- 
tion. 

Yellowish  Gray.— Decoction  of  Persian  ber- 
ries, mixed  with  solution  sulphate  of  iron. 

Cherry  Red.— Decoction  of  Brazil  wood  diluted 
with  alcohol  to  which  some  solution  of  tin  is  added. 

Orange.— Annatto  or  saffron  dissolved  in  alco- 
hol. 

Red.— Solution  of  cochineal  mixed  with  saffron 
solution. 

Rose  Color.— Cochineal  and  alum  water. 

Straw  Color.— First,  decoction  of  Persian  ber- 
ries, then  weak  solution  of  tin. 

Solution  of.  gall  nuts  is  made  by  steeping  pow- 
dered gall  nuts  in  alcohol  and  straining  after  stand- 
ing a  day  of  two. 

Sulphate  of  iron  solution  is  made  of  copperas 
dissolved  in  alcohol.  Extract  of  Logwood  dissolved 
in  alcohol  gives  the  Logwood  solution. 

Solutions  of  Brazil  wood,  fustic,  and  Persian 
berries  are  made  by  steeping  in  hot  water. 

Cochineal  solution  is  made  by  boiling  cochin- 
eal in  double  its  weight  of  ammonia  water  until 
the  ammonia  smell  is  no  longer  present.  Mix  the 
residue  with  alcohol  and  filter.  Use  a  gentle  heat 
when  treating  the  cochineal  with  ammonia. 

Indigo  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  indigo  in 

161 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Fokmulae. 

four  times  its  weight  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  Al- 
low it  to  settle,  and  dilute  with  water. 

Solution  of  Tin.— Dissolve  50  parts  of  tin  in  50 
parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  by  boiling. 

Various  aniline  colors,  both  soluble  in  oil  and 
water  can  be  purchased  at  a  reasonable  price, 
considering  their  great  strength  or  staining  power. 
The  stain  is  made  by  simply  dissolving  the  aniline 
in  the  linseed  oil,  turpentine,  water,  or  alcohol,  and 
applying  at  the  desired  strength.  Such  stains  can 
be  made  at  a  cost  of  little  more  than  the  actual  cost 
of  the  oil  or  turpentine,  or  from  water,  at  a  cost  of 
a  few  cents  per  gallon.  Varnish  stains  can  be  made 
by  dissolving  the  aniline  colors  in  a  little  turpen- 
tine and  stirring  the  varnish  with  the  color.  Many 
varnish  stains  on  the  market  are  produced  in  this 
way.  By  making  your  own,  you  can  get  the  exact 
color  and  strength  desired,  and  be  sure  of  having 
a  good  grade  of  varnish,  whereas,  in  purchasing  the 
ready  made  article,  it  is  often  uncertain,  and  the 
price  is  always  about  four  times  what  you  can  pro- 
duce the  same  article  for. 

The  anilines  give  clear  brilliant  tones,  and  while 
some  fade  a  little,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  fairly 
permanent,  especially  when  protected  with  varnish. 

For  absolute  permanency,  the  earth  pigments 
are  best,  but  the  brilliant  clear  effects  are  more  dif- 
ficult to  procure. 

162 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

We  give  a  list  of  the  most  satisfactory  pig- 
ment stains  which  cost,  in  oil,  about  60  cents  per 
gallon,  and  in  varnish,  from  40  to  75  cents,  accord- 
ing to  the  varnish  used. 

Yellow  Brown  and  Red  Brown  Stains. 
A  solution  of  1  oz.  of  commercial  alizarine  in 
20  ozs.  of  water,  to  which  solution  ammonia  is  very 
slowly  added  until  the  ammonia  odor  is  perceptible, 
will  give  to  oak,  a  yellow  brown  color,  and  to  maple, 
a  red  brown.  If  the  wood  is  then  treated  with  a  so- 
lution of  barium  chloride  (2  drams  to  the  pint  of 
water),  the  first  named  wood  becomes  brown,  and 
the  latter  dark  brown.  If  calcium  chloride  is  used 
in  place  of  barium  chloride,  fir  wood  becomes 
brown,  oak,  red  brown,  and  maple,  dark  brown. 

If  a  solution  of  magnesium  sulphate  be  used  (4 
drams  to  the  pint  of  water),  the  fir  and  oak  become 
dark  brown  and  the  maple,  a  dark  violet  brown. 

Alum  produces  on  fir  a  light  red,  and  on  maple, 
and  oak,  a  blood  red. 

Chrome  alum  colors  maple  and  fir  reddish 
brown,  and  oak,  a  rich  brown ;  manganese  sulphate 
renders  fir  and  maple  a  dark  violet  brown,  and 
oak,  a  dark  walnut  brown. 

VARNISH  AND  OIL  STAINS. 
These  are  made  by  the  addition  of  tinting  col- 

163 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ors  to  definite  quantities  of  varnish  or  oil,  with  the 
addition  of  liquid  dryers.  In  selecting  colors  for 
these  stains,  it.  is  important  that  those  of  the  great- 
est tinting  power,  transparency  and  brilliancy  be 
selected,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
such  pigments  as  are  unfading  and  permanent. 
The  tinting  mediums  can  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished to  suit  the  shade  or  color  required  and  the 
nature  of  the  material  on  which  they  are  to  be  used. 
The  varnish  used  may  be  low  priced,  or  of  good 
grade,  to  suit  the  class  of  work  they  are  intended 
for.  In  a  general  way,  however,  it  should  be  hard 
and  rather  quick  drying.  If  too  heavy,  reduce 
with  turpentine  or  benzine.  This  will  be  neces- 
sary. 

Oil  stains  can  be  produced  by  substituting  this 
medium  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  varnish,  with 
the  addition  of  1-2  pint  each,  of  good  liquid  dryer 
and  turpentine  to  the  gallon. 

Cherry  Varnish  Stain.— To  each  gallon  of  var- 
nish, add  1-2  pound  of  burnt  sienna,  and  1-2  pound 
of  yellow  ochre,  both  ground  (in  oil). 

Dark  Cherry  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound 
of  burnt  sienna  in  oil  to  each  gallon  of  varnish. 

Walnut  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound  of 
burnt  umber  in  oil  to  each  gallon ;  or  tint  the  var- 
nish with  asphaltum  varnish. 

164 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Antique  Oak  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound 
of  ochre  and  1-4  pound  of  burnt  umber  in  oil  to  the 
gallon. 

Oak  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound  of  ochre 
in  oil  to  each  gallon. 

Mahogany  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1-2  pound  of 
maroon  lake  and  1-2  pound  of  burnt  sienna  in  oil  to 
each  gallon. 

Rosewood  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound  of 
rose  pink  and  1-2  pound  of  burnt  sienna  in  oil  to 
each  gallon. 

Green  Varnish  Stain.— Add  1  pound  of  pure 
chrome  green  in  oil  to  each  gallon. 

These  shades  can  be  varied  also  by  the  addition 
of  other  colors  to  produce  special  colors  as  desired. 

SHINGLE  STAINS — These  stains  must  be  made 
from  permanent  unfading  colors  mixed  with  some 
medium  which  readily  penetrates  the  wood,  and 
which  is  indifferent  to  the  effect  of  weather. 

A  good  cheap  base  is  3  gallons  of  water  white, 
150  degree  test  petroleum  oil,  2  gallons  of  crude 
creasote  oil,  and  1-2  gallon  of  good  liquid  dryer, 
tinted  the  desired  color. 

165 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

For  a  better  grade  of  shingle  stain,  use  2  gal- 
lons of  raw  linseed  oil,  2  gallons  of  turpentine,  1 
gallon  of  creasote  oil  and  1-2  gallon  of  dryer,  tinted 
as  above. 

The  creasote  used  should  be  clear  and  not  too 
dark  or  heavy.  Crude  carbolic  acid  can  be  sub- 
stituted, and  is  lighter  and  clearer  than  ordinary 
creasote  or  dead  oil. 

Shingle  stain  need  not  contain  creasote,  but  may 
be  made  in  the  usual  way  from  raw  oil,  turpentine 
and  dryer.  Linseed  oil  stains  tend  to  turn  black 
after  exposure,  when  used  on  shingles. 

SHELLAC  VARNISH  so  easily  made  and  so  subject 
to  adulteration,  should  claim  the  painter's  special 
attention.  The  many  cheap  shellac  varnishes  on 
the  market  are  adulterated  with  rosin  or  cheap  gum 
resins,  which  detract  seriously  from  the  hardness 
and  general  wearing  qualities.  Such  shellac  var- 
nishes tend  to  flake  off  or  blister  and  soon  perish. 
"When  you  prepare  your  own,  you  know  just  what 
you  have  and  your  results  when  applied  to  work  are 
certain. 

Grain  Alcohol,  White  Shellac— To  10  pounds 
of  white  shellac  granulated,  add  2  gallons  of  grain 
alcohol  in  a  closed  wooden  or  earthenware  vessel. 
Agitate  occasionally.      Costs  from  $2.50  to  $3.00 

166 


Paint  and  Vabnish  Facts  and  Fobmulae. 

per  gallon,  according  to  the  price  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials.     The  yield  is  3  gallons. 

Orange  grain  alcohol  shellac  is  made  in  the  same 
way.  using  orange  shellac  of  good  quality.  The 
cost  is  a  trifle  less  than  the  white. 

Wood  alcohol  white  and  orange  shellacs  call  for 
the  same  general  treatment  substituting  wood  al- 
cohol for  grain.  Average  cost  $1.50  to  $1.80  per 
gallon. 

As  both  alcohol  and  shellac  are  usually  sold  on  a 
very  close  margin  of  profit,  you  can  readily  see 
that  shellac  must  be  adulterated  to  sell  at  the 
prices  frequently  met  with. 

A  good  cheap  orange  shellac  is  made  as  follows : 

Dissolve  in  the  usual  way  with  occasional  agita- 
tion, 5  pounds  of  orange  shellac  and  5  pounds  of 
pulverized  rosin  in  2  gallons  of  wood  alcohol. 
Costs  about  $1.00  per  gallon  and  will  answer  very 
well  as  a  knotting  or  priming  shellac. 

All  of  these  formulae  give  shellacs  of  extreme 
body  and  they  admit  of  much  reducing  with  alcohol. 

The  addition  of  1  pint  of  Venice  turpentine  to 
each  gallon  of  cheap  shellac  will  much  improve  the 
elasticity. 

167 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Foemulae. 

Spirit  Varnish  for  Floors.— Dissolve  5  pounds 
of  gum  sandarac  and  8  pounds  of  orange  shellac  in 
4  gallons  of  wood  alcohol.  Yield  6  1-2  gallons. 
This  mixture  reduced  one-half  with  wood  alcohol 
makes  a  splendid  polish  for  furniture. 

Grain  alcohol  can  be  used  in  its  preparation 
also. 

Shellac  Water  Varnish.— Dissolve  1  pound  of 
borax  in  2  1-2  gallons  of  hot  water  and  add  to  this 
little  by  little,  3  pounds  of  white  shellac.  Allow  to 
stand,  add  more  shellac  if  too  thin. 

No.  2. 

3  pounds  of  orange  shella2, 1  pound  sal  ammoni- 
ac and  1  gallon  of  water  shaken  together  and  al- 
lowed to  stand  12  hours.  Then  heat  until  dis- 
solved. Thin  with  water  if  too  heavy.  This  makes 
an  excellent  primer  or  filler  for  many  purposes.  It 
dries  hard  and  is  little  affected  by  moisture.  A 
very  cheap  spirit  varnish  can  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing 20  pounds  of  powdered  rosin  in  2  gallons  of 
wood  alcohol  with  the  addition  of  from  1  pint  to  1 
quart  of  Venice  turpentine.  This  dries  hard  and 
entirely  on  the  surface,  and  is  useful  as  a  quick 
drying  filler  or  wall  surfacer. 

SPECIAL  VARNISHES. 

Colorless  Varnish  or  Lacquer.— Dissolve  4  ozs. 

168 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

gum  sandarac  and  1  oz.  Venice  turpentine  in  1  pint 
of  alcohol.  A  good  spirit  varnish  and  lacquer  for 
general  use. 

Transparent  Brilliant  Varnish.— Dissolve  10 
parts  of  mastic,  5  parts  of  camphor,  5  parts  sand- 
rac  and  5  parts  of  kauri  gum  in  100  parts  of  alcohol. 
This  is  a  durable  spirit  varnish. 

Waterproof  Varnish.— White  shellac  gum,  30 
parts;  borax,  8  parts;  carbonate  of  soda,  2  parts; 
glycerine,  2  parts ;  water,  320  parts. 

Dissolve  the  borax  and  carbonate  of  soda  in  half 
the  water  warmed,  and  add  the  shellac  ground. 
Heat,  agitate  and  filter.  When  cool,  add  the  gly- 
cerine and  the  balance  of  the  water.  Use  the  clear 
varnish,  free  from  sediment. 

Waterproof  Paper  Varnish.— Dissolve  with  lit- 
tle heat,  1  part  of  gutta  percha  in  40  parts  of  ben- 
zine. Gun  cotton  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate,  so- 
called  collodion  varnish,  is  also  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

To  lighten  shellac  varnish  which  has  become 
dark  with  age,  add  1-4  oz.  of  oxalic  acid  to  each  gal- 
lon of  shellac  to  be  treated.  Shellac  varnishes 
should  never  be  kept  in  metallic  vessels  any  length 
of  time. 

169 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Collodion  varnish  used  as  a  bronzing  liquid, 
and  for  other  purposes  can  be  made  as  follows : 

Gun  cotton,  (dry),  1  1-2  pounds, 
Acetone,  10  pounds, 

Dissolve  the  gun  cotton  in  the  acetone,  then  add : 

Acetate  of  amyl,  20  lbs., 
Benzine,  20  lbs. 
Allow  to  settle  out  and  pour  off  the  clear  solu- 
tion or  filter,  if  desired. 

No.  2. 

Amyl  acetate  1  gallon, 
Benzol,  1  gallon, 
Gun  cotton,  10  ozs. 

These  varnishes  can  be  made  more  flexible  by 
the  addition  of  4  ozs.  of  castor  oil  to  each  gallon 
of  varnish. 

Frequently  a  varnish  is  required  which,  when 
dry,  will  present  a  flat  or  dead  surface,  instead  of 
the  usual  gloss,  or  which  will  present  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  rubbed  without  the  labor  and 
expense  of  that  operation.  Various  "flat  var- 
nishes" are  on  the  market.  They  owe  this  quality 
to  the  fact  that  they  contain  wax  and  are  very  thin 
in  body. 

Such  a  varnish  is  produced  by  heating  together 
at  a  temperature  just  sufficient  to  melt  the  wax,  2 

170 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

ozs.  of  bees '  wax,  paraffine  or  ceresin  wax  to  each 
quart  of  any  rubbing  varnish  and  thinning  with 
1-2  pint  of  turpentine.  Hard  oil  finish  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  way.  Apply  as  a  final  coating 
to  the  surface  previously  varnished  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  amount  of  wax  may  be  varied  to  suit 
circumstances. 

Dead  surface  varnishes  are  also  prepared  by 
compounding  mixtures  of  resin  solutions  with 
liquids  in  which  they  are  insoluble.  A  solution  of 
gum  sandrac  in  ether,  when  mixed  with  1-4  of 
benzole,  gives  a  surface  resembling  ground  glass, 
as  does  damar  dissolved  in  benzole  when  ether  is 
mixed  with  it. 

Dead  Finishing  Varnish.— Dissolve  10  parts  of 
gum  sandarac  in  34  parts  of  ether ;  when  dissolved, 
add  34  parts  of  benzole. 

SUBSTITUTES. 

Paint  Oils  and  Boiled  Oil  Substitutes. 

The  necessity  often  arises  for  a  cheap  oil  for 
use  in  paint  where  rough  work  is  to  be  protected, 
and  the  price  of  pure  linseed  oil  would  preclude  its 
use.  In  such  a  case,  substitutes  are  allowable.  If, 
however,  they  are  to  be  mixed  with  pure  oil  as  adul- 
terants to  cheapen  the  product  and  defraud  the  pur- 
chaser, their  use  is  to  be  deplored. 

The  ever-increasing  demand  for  cheap  paints 
has  brought  many  substitutes  for  linseed  oil  on  the 

171 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

market,  few  of  which  can  compare  in  any  particu- 
lar with  the  qualities  of  the  oil  they  are  intended 
to  replace. 

The  other  vegetable  drying  oils  are  excluded  on 
account  of  their  price,  (at  one  time  cotton  seed  oil 
was  used),  and  from  it  an  excellent  substitute  can 
be  produced.  Animal  and  fish  oils  are  also  ex- 
cluded for  the  same  reason;  price. 

We  have  left  then,  to  choose  from,  the  various 
substitutes  prepared  from  rosin,  rosin  oil  and  the 
mineral  oils  which,  in  most  cases,  need  the  addition 
of  linseed  oil  to  give  them  any  degree  of  goodness. 

The  rosin  and  rosin  oil  substitutes  are  apt  to 
dry  extremely  brittle  and  friable  and  the  great  dif- 
ficulty with  mineral  oil,  if  combined  in  large  pro- 
portion with  linseed  oil,  is  that  the  mineral  oil,  es- 
pecially if  of  the  heavier  variety,  will  not  dry,  but, 
on  the  other  hand  sweat  out  on  the  layer  of  drying 
oil  and  be  of  no  value. 

When  mineral  oil  is  combined  with  linseed  oil 
in  moderate  amount,  it  may  be  used  as  a  fair  paint 
oil. 

The  various  resinates  made  by  dissolving  rosin 
in  an  alkali,  forming  rosin  soap,  and  precipitating 
the  rosin  with  some  metallic  salt,  such  as  sulphate 
of  zinc,  sugar  of  lead,  or  chloride  of  manganese, 
produces  metallic  resinates  which,  when  dissolved 
in  benzine  or  turpentine  form  acceptable  substi- 
tutes. 

172 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Rosin  oil  is  refined,  boiled  and  a  proportion  of 
manganese  or  lead  dryer  is  added  to  give  it  more 
hardness  and  better  drying  qualities. 

Oxidized  linseed  oil,  which  is  oil  boiled  until  it 
becomes  a  thick  viscid  substance,  thinned  with  ben- 
zine or  kerosene  to  a  proper  body  is,  perhaps,  one 
of  the  best  substitutes  in  use. 

All  these  oils  require  apparatus  and  skill  for 
their  preparation. 

To  make  substitutes  without  the  aid  of  heat  or 
apparatus,  the  following  mixtures  are  recom- 
mended as  being  equal  to.  or  the  same  as  many  of 
the  so-called  roof  oils  and  cheap  paint  oils  on  the 
market. 

Paint  Oil  from  Rosin  Oil.— For  this  purpose 
use  for  light  colored  oils,  first  or  second  run  rosin 
oil.    The  third  run  can  be  used  for  darker  oils. 

No.  1. 

Rosin  oil,  30  gallons, 
Raw  linseed  oil,  15  gallons, 
Strong  manganese  dryer,  5  gallons. 
Mix  thoroughly.    Less  linseed  oil  can  be  added, 
which  reduces  the  quality  of  the  resulting  product. 

No.  2. 

Rosin  oil,  45  gallons, 
Strong  manganese  dryer,  5  gallons, 
The  odor  of  rosin  oil  is  often  objectionable. 
Rosin  oil  is  sometimes  called  bright  varnish.    It 

173 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

must  be  remembered  that  rosin  oils  and  rosin, 
when  mixed  with  white  lead,  have  a  tendency  to 
liver,  or  thicken.  Zinc  white  will  act  in  the  same 
way  if  the  oils  are  not  largely  linseed.  Such  oils, 
at  best,  should  only  be  used  with  the  earth  pig- 
ments, as  ochre,  iron  oxides,  graphite,  etc. 

Paint  oil  substitutes  may  be  made  also  by  sub- 
stituting gloss  oil,  (rosin  varnish)  for  rosin  oil.  In 
this  way,  the  objectionable  odor  in  rosin  oil  is  elimi- 
nated as  rosin  varnish  is  free  from  it. 
Gloss  oil,  30  gallons, 
Raw  linseed  oil,  15  gallons, 
Strong  manganese  dryer,  5  gallons, 
or, 

Glass  oil,  40  gallons, 
Raw  linseed  oil,  10  gallons, 
Strong  manganese  dryer,  5  gallons. 
Liquid,  or  Japan  dryer  made  with  litharge  or 
other  lead  compounds  may  be  used  in  place  of  man- 
ganese dryer. 

A  dryer,  containing  both  lead  and  manganese, 
is  much  more  powerful  than  dryer  composed  of 
either  of  these  substances  alone.  Oil  of  mirbane 
is  used  to  disguise  the  odor  of  strong  smelling  oils. 
Turpentine  Substitutes. 
They  consist,  generally,  of  benzine,  kerosene, 
rosin  spirit,  or  coal  tar  naptha,  mixed  with  various 
proportions  of  turpentine,  to  which  is  added  also 

174 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

some  substance  to  disguise  the  odor  of  the  sub- 
stances used,  and  simulate  the  odor  of  turpentine. 
None  of  them  replace  turpentine  in  its  peculiar 
qualities,  but  they  serve  a  purpose  where  cheap 
solvents  or  diluents  are  called  for.  While  these 
substitutes  dry  rapidly  by  evaporation,  it  will  be 
found  that  pure  turpentine,  when  used  in  the  same 
proportion,  causes  more  rapid  drying  of  the  paint 
or  varnish  to  which  it  is  added,  than  when  benzine 
or  similar  substances  are  used,  as  turpentine  ab- 
sorbs oxygen  and  these  substitutes  do  not  have  any 
influence  on  the  paint. 

No.  1. 

Turpentine,  20  gallons, 

Benzine,  20  gallons, 

Kerosene,  10  gallons, 

Camphor  oil,  1-4  gallon. 
No.  2. 

Turpentine,  10  gallons, 

Benzine,  20  gallons, 

Kerosene,  20  gallons, 

Camphor  oil,  1-2  gallon. 

No.  3. 
Turpentine,  10  gallons, 
Benzine,  30  gallons, 
Kerosene,  10  gallons, 
Camphor  oil,  1-4  gallon, 
Raw  linseed  oil,  1  gallon. 

175 


Paint  and  Vaknish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Oil  of  lemon  is  also  used  in  the  proportion  of  1-2 
oz.  to  the  gallon,  in  place  of  camphor  oil.     The  use 
of  oil  of  lemon  is  excluded,  because  of  the  price, 
whereas,  oil  of  camphor  is  very  cheap. 
Other  turpentine  substitutes: 

Pinoline,  or  resin  spirit,  20  gallons, 
Benzine,  20  gallons, 
Kerosene,  10  gallons, 
Camphor  oil,  1-4  gallon. 

Pinoline,  or  resin  spirit,  10  gallons, 
Turpentine,  10  gallons, 
Benzine,  30  gallons, 
Camphor  oil,  (if  necessary),  1-8  gallon. 
Finally,  it  might  be  added  that  deodorized  or 
varnish  makers'  benzine  should  be  used,  as  having 
less  odor. 

WATER  GLASS,   (SILICICATE  OF  SODA)   PAINTS. 

For  Coating  Rough  Walls.— Mix  one  part  of 
commercial  water  glass  with  three  parts  of  water. 
Apply  this  with  a  brush.  The  lime  in  the  mortar 
forms  with  water  glass,  silicate  of  lime  and  a  coat- 
ing of  glassy  appearance  results,  solid,  hard,  and 
resistent  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 

By  painting  whitewashed  walls  with  water 
glass,  the  coating  is  rendered  much  more  durable 
and  will  not  rub  off. 

Zinc  white  2  parts,  and  Paris  white  1  part, 
mixed  in  water  glass  gives  a  beautiful  white  color. 

176 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

Water  glass  is  well  adapted  for  painting  metal, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  pigments. 

Such  a  coating  resists  moisture  and  prevents 
rust  or  corrosion  of  the  metal. 

To  each  gallon  of  water  glass,  add  4  pounds  of 
earth  pigment  and  apply  in  the  usual  way.  The 
addition  of  1-4  pound  of  caseine,  or  1-2  pound  of 
dextrine  to  each  gallon  of  water  glass  used,  will 
render  the  coating  more  elastic  and  prevent  scal- 
ing of  the  paint. 

Wood  is  rendered  fireproof  by  a  simple  coating 
of  this  substance. 

PERMANENT  WHITEWASH. -Slack  1-2  bushel  of 
lime  with  boiling  water  in  a  covered  vessel.  Strain 
through  a  fine  sieve,  add  7  lbs.  of  salt,  previously 
dissolved  in  warm  water,  2  lbs.  of  ground  rice, 
boiled  to  a  paste  and  stirred  in  boiling  hot,  1-2  lb. 
of  powdered  whiting,  1  lb.  glue,  previously  dis- 
solved. Add  5  gallons  of  hot  water  to  the  mix- 
ture, stir  well,  then  let  stand  a  few  days,  well  pro- 
tected from  dust  and  dirt.  Apply  hot.  Coloring 
matter  may  be  added. 

Whitewash.— Mix  up  the  lime  and  water  in  the 
usual  way,  add  a  little  salt ;  then  add  1  lb.  of  flour, 
previously  mixed  with  hot  water,  to  each  pailful  of 
whitewash. 

Whitewash.— Slake  30  pounds  of  lime  in  a  suit- 
able vessel,  by  covering  it  with  water.  Dilute  the 
mixture,  and  add  2  pounds  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  and 

177 


Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

1  pound  of  salt;  or  in  place  of  the  zinc  and  salt,  add 
1  pound  of  good  Portland,  or  other  hydraulic  ce- 
ment to  each  10  pounds  of  lime  used. 

IN  KALSOMINING  or  applying  water  or  fresco 
colors  it  is  often  required  to  point  up  or  fill  cracks 
and  crevices  in  the  surface  to  be  covered.  For  this 
purpose,  make  a  mixture  of  plaster  of  Paris  and 
whiting,  equal  parts,  formed  into  a  paste  with  weak 
glue  size. 

The  wall  should  then  be  sized  with  some  suit- 
able substance ;  either  with  ceiling  varnish  or  some 
quick  drying  varnish  containing  little  oil,  with  a 
solution  of  caseine  dissolved  in  borax  water,  or 
mixed  with  an  equal  portion  of  slacked  lime 
thinned  to  the  consistency  of  thin  paint,  or  with 
silicate  of  soda  thinned  with  water. 

The  ordinary  size  is  made  by  combining  the 
following : 

Good  white  glue,  or  gelatine,  1  pound, 
Alum,  powdered,  1-2  pound, 
Ordinary  soap,  1-4  pound, 

Dissolve  separately  in  boiling  water.  Mix  the 
soap  and  glue  solutions  and  add  the  alum  water 
slowly  to  the  above  with  stirring.  Thin  with  cold 
water  to  the  consistency  of  thin  paint  or  size. 

To  prepare  kalsomine,  mix  to  a  thick  paste  with 
water,  Paris  white,  and  add  1  oz.  of  good  glue  or 

178 


Paint  and  Vaenish  Facts  and  Formulae. 

gelatine  dissolved  in  hot  water  to  each  two  pounds 
of  Paris  white  used.  Whiting  can  be  substituted 
for  Paris  white.  Colors  can  be  added  before  the 
glue  solution  has  been  mixed  with  the  Paris  white. 
Mix  the  colors,  if  dry,  with  a  little  water  and  add 
them  in  thin  paste  form.  If  much  color  is  added, 
use  additional  glue  in  the  same  proportion  as  used 
with  the  Paris  white.  As  Paris  white,  and  similar 
white  pigments  when  used  alone  tend  to  turn  yel- 
low, the  addition  of  a  little  ultramarine  blue  is 
advisable  to  give  a  satisfactory  white  when  dry. 
Whiting  is  graded  according  to  its  fineness,  and 
sold  as  extra  gilders,  gilders  and  common  bolted 
whiting.  The  best  should  be  used  in  all  cases. 
This  applies  to  Paris  white  also.  These  materials 
are  too  cheap  to  experiment  with  and  much  loss  is 
entailed  by  the  use  of  other  than  the  finest  grades. 


179 


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